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GIFT  OF 
Agricultural  Educ.Div 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


WITH 


PLANS  FOR  HOME  PROJECTS 


BY 

ARETAS   W.   NOLAN, 

<! 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR,    AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION, 

UNIVERSITY   OF   ILLINOIS,    AUTHOR   OF    "ONE 

HUNDRED  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE." 


CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 

ROW,    PETERSON   AND    COMPANY 


MAIN 


COPYRIGHT,  1919 
ROW,  PETERSON 
AND  COMPANY 


INTRODUCTION 

Practical  farmers  often  wonder  what  the  schools  can  teach 
in  the  way  of  agriculture.  Those  of  us  who  advocate  agri- 
culture as  a  school  subject  have  been  trying  to  answer  this 
question  for  both  the  farmer  and  the  educator.  Some  phases 
of  the  question  are  quite  clear  to  progressive  farmers  as  well 
as  to  teachers. 

We  do  not  propose  to  teach  farmers  how  to  "run  their 
own  business,"  but  we  do  propose  to  teach  both  young  and 
old  farmers  facts  and  principles  which  they  can  profitably 
use  in  their  business. 

It  concerns  us  all,  whatever  our  vocation  and  station  in 
life  may  be,  whether  farming  be  done  efficiently  or  not.  It 
is  no  longer  merely  an  individual  matter  as  to  whether  Farmer 
X  runs  his  own  farm  efficiently  or  not ;  it  is  a  question  also 
of  public  welfare.  But  the  farmer  in  serving  the  larger 
interest  also  insures  his  private  welfare. 

It  is  an  educational-economical  proposition,  that  only  those 
who  know  and  care  should  be  entrusted  with  the  natural 
resources  upon  the  wise  use  and  conservation  of  which  rest 
the  prosperity  and  permanency  of  our  nation.  Many  genera- 
tions of  farmers  of  the  past  have  learned  how  to  prosper 
and  grow  rich  from  the  virgin  resources  of  the  land.  They 
learned  and  practiced  the  art  of  farming  for  these  purposes 

5 

4627 


6  INTRODUCTION 

and  passed  this  knowledge  down  from  father  to  son ;  but  they 
knew  little  of  the  science  of  agriculture  or  of  the  sciences 
upon  which  agriculture  is  based. 

Young  men  and  women  can  learn  in  schools  how  to  improve 
and  conserve  the  fertility  of  the  soil;  how  to  improve  the 
economic  plants  so  that  they  may  be  better  adapted  to  their 
surroundings  and  have  better  yielding  qualities;  how  to 
improve  farm  animals  so  that  there  may  be  greater  produc- 
tion and  better  quality  of  products;  how  to  combat  insect 
pests  and  diseases;  how  to  bring  about  a  more  productive, 
profitable,  and  permanent  agriculture;  and  how  to  organize 
a  more  satisfying  country  life.  These  are  the  demands  of 
modern  agriculture. 

The  farmer  should  be  lord  of  the  three  kingdoms  over 
which  he  rules.  The  plants,  the  animals,  and  the  minerals 
are  his  domain ;  his  farm  is  made  up  of  these  three  kingdoms. 
How  unfortunate  for  all  if  he  does  not  know  the  plants, 
animals  and  minerals  with  which  he  deals.  "What  would 
we  think  of  a  physician  who  did  not  know  the  science  of 
physiology  or  chemistry?  What  could  the  lawyer  hope  to 
do  who  did  not  know  the  laws  of  his  state,  or  the  principles 
underlying  legal  practice? 

The  young  farmers  who  are  now  studying  scientific  agri- 
culture know  that  they  must  be  masters  of  the  kingdoms  with 
which  they  deal:  they  must  know  plants,  animals  and  min- 
erals; how  to  produce,  protect,  and  improve  in  the  best  and 
most  economical  way  their  plants  and  animals;  and  how  to 
conserve  and  use  most  wisely  the  mineral  resources  of 
their  farms. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  I,  AGRONOMY 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I     How  PLANTS  GROW 9 

II     WHEAT .*V 13 

Notebook  Questions 21 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 22 

III  OATS  26 

Notebook  Questions 28 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 29 

IV  CLOVER   32 

Notebook  Questions 37 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 37 

V    ALFALFA  40 

Notebook  Questions 46 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 47 

VI     MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 49 

Notebook  Questions 51 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 51 

VII     CORN 53 

Notebook  Questions 84 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 86 

VIII     SOILS 91 

Notebook  Questions 121 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 123 

PART  II,  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

IX    FARM  ANIMALS  AND  LIVE-STOCK  FARMING 131 

X     THE  HORSE  133 

Notebook  Questions 155 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 156 

XI     DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 159 

Notebook  Questions ' 175 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 175 

XII     SWINE 179 

Notebook  Questions 194 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 194 

XIII     POULTRY  197 

Notebook  Questions 210 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 210 


g  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PART  III,  FARM  BUSINESS  AND  LIFE 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIV  THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 214 

Notebook  Questions 224 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 224 

XV  COUNTRY  LIFE  ORGANIZATIONS 227 

Notebook  Questions 234 

XVI  RURAL  LIFE  PROGRESS  236 

Notebook  Questions 240 

PART  IV,  HORTICULTURE 

XVII    FARM  FORESTRY 241 

Notebook  Questions 253 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 253 

XVIII     FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM 259 

Notebook  Questions 279 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 279 

XIX    THE  HOME  GARDEN 286 

Notebook  Questions 304 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 305 

XX     THE  COUNTRY  BEAUTIFUL 309 

Notebook  Questions 313 

Practical  Exercises  and  Home  Projects 314 

PART  V,  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Poultry  Raising... 317  14.  Growing  Strawberries...  360 

2.  Keeping  Dairy  Cows 320  15.  Growing  Sweet  Peas 363 

3.  Pig  Raising 323  16.  BeautifyingHome 

4.  Corn  Growing 327  Grounds 365 

5.  Some  Insect  Studies 331  17.  Care  of  Fruit  Trees 369 

6.  Growing  Alfalfa 332  18.  Planting  a  Catalpa  Grove  373 

7.  Soil  Fertility  and  Alfalfa  334  19.  Growing  Sudan  Grass. . .  375 

8.  Vegetable  Gardening 341  20.  Making  a  Concrete  Walk  376 

9.  Tomato  Raising 347  21.  Making  a  Farm  Gate 378 

10.  Potato  Raising 350  22.  The  Young   Farmer's 

11.  Onion  Growing 354  Business  Office   379 

12.  Cucumber  Growing 356  23.  Farm,    Home    and    Com- 

13.  Sweet  Corn  Culture 359  munity  Survey 382 

APPENDIX 

Constitution    and    By-La ws    of    the    High-School    Agricultural 

and  Country  Life  Club 388 

References   391 

Index  .  .  392 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

PART  T 

AGRONOMY    ,   /.\' 

CHAPTER  I 

HOW  PLANTS  GROW 

The  chief  concern  of  the  farmer  is  the  growing  of  plants. 
It  is  for  the  plants  that  he  improves  the  fertility  of  his  soils. 
It  is  the  plants  upon  which  he  feeds  his  animals.  It  is  the 
plants,  directly  or  indirectly,  that  he  sells  for  money  or  eats 
as  food.  It  is  for  the  protection  of  plants  that  he  com- 
bats the  insects  and  diseases;  and  for  the  cultivation  and 
harvesting  of  plants  that  he  purchases  and  uses  farm 
machinery. 

Our  study  of  agriculture  will  therefore  begin  with  plants, 
and  as  we  proceed  we  shall  learn  the  latest  and  best  known 
methods  of  the  production  and  use  of  the  economic  plants 
of  our  section  of  the  country. 

Human  interest  in  plants.  Whether  he  knows  it  or  not, 
everyone  has  a  vital  interest  in  plant  life.  The  life  of  man 
and  animal  depends  almost  entirely  on  plants  or  plant  prod- 
ucts. From  the  fruit  on  our  table  to  the  clothing  we  wear, 

9 


10  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  houses  we  live  in,  the  vehicles  we  ride  in,  and  the  art  we 
enjoy,  the  plant  interest  is  an  important  factor.  Most  of 
the  world's  great  industries  are  carried  on  with  raw  mate- 
rial derived  from  plants.  The  farmer,  the  gardener,  the 
lumberman,  the  carpenter,  the  shipbuilder,  the  cotton  manu- 
facturer, the  sail-maker,  and  even  the  miner,  all  depend  upon 
the  products  of  the  plant  life  that  is  or  was  on  the  earth  or 
in  the  sea,  ;  the  -air  which  we  breathe  is  purified  partly 
through  the  processes  by  which  the  green  plants  live.  Human 
life  could '  not-  continue  long  without  the  aid  of  substances 
produced  by  the  life  and  growth  of  plants. 

How  plants  grow.  Let  us  begin  at  the  beginning  of  a 
typical  plant  growth  and  trace  the  steps  and  processes  in 
its  development.  If  we  start  with  the  seed  of  a  higher  plant 
for  our  study,  we  have  not  begun  at  the  beginning,  for  this 
was  made  back  in  the  blossom  when  the  seed  was  forming. 
The  seed  of  the  plant  consists  of  a  tiny  plant  imbedded  in 
a  cotyledon,  the  bulky  portion  of  the  seed,  resting  in  its 
development  until  favorable  surroundings  start  it  again  in 
growth. 

A  good  seed  is,  of  course,  alive  and  healthy.  It  is  true  to 
the  parents  which  produced  it.  It  is  large  and  plump,  show- 
ing that  it  has  a  maximum  amount  of  food  supply.  In  quan- 
tity it  is  clean  and  free  from  foreign  matter.  "When  this 
seed  is  placed  in  medium  temperature,  with  sufficient  moisture 
and  plenty  of  air,  it  will  begin  to  grow,  to  germinate.  This 
favorable  surrounding  for  most  seeds  is  made  in  the  soil  of 
the  seed-bed.  By  germination  we  mean  that  the  moisture 
absorbed  into  the  cotyledons  begins  to  dissolve  the  starchy 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW  H 

material,  which  can  then  be  used  for  the  growth  of  the  young 
root  and  leaves  in  the  plant.  The  tiny  roots  push  out  into 
the  soil,  root-hairs  establish  connections  with  the  soil  particles, 
and  the  roots  begin  to  absorb  the  mineral  plant-foods  in 
solution. 

The  shoot  breaks  through  the  surface  of  the  soil,  unrolls 
the  leaves,  and  the  sunlight  helps  to  change  the  materials 
of  the  soil  so  that  they  can  be  assimilated  into  the  parts  of 
the  growing  plant.  In  the  presence  of  sunlight,  and  under 
the  life  principle  in  the  growing  plant,  the  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  air  enters  the  breathing  pores  of  the  leaf,  and  com- 
bines with  the  water  taken  up  by  the  roots  to  form  the  sugar 
and  starch  substances  in  the  leaves.  The  excess  of  water 
needed  to  bring  up  the  minerals  is  thrown  off  from  the  leaves 
by  transpiration,  and  the  excess  of  oxygen  taken  in  to  supply 
the  carbon  in  the  carbon  dioxide  gas  is  also  given  off  through 
the  leaves  as  free  oxygen.  The  starch  material  thus  made 
in  the  presence  of  and  by  the  help  of  the  green  particles  in 
the  leaf  and  the  sunlight  is  then  changed  to  sugar  and  is  car- 
ried by  the  cells  downward  and  outward  to  the  various  tis- 
sues of  the  growing  plant  to  be  assimilated  into  root,  stem, 
leaf,  and  later  into  flower  and  fruit.  This  process  continues 
until  the  plant  has  reached  its  full  maturity. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  note  that  considerable  work  is  done 
in  causing  a  plant  to  grow.  In  the  corn  plant,  for  instance, 
for  every  pound  of  dry  matter  produced,  350  pounds  of  water 
must  pass  through  the  leaves  and  be  transpired  into  the  air. 
It  has  been  determined  that  this  represents  an  energy  in  an 
acre  of  corn  producing  fifty  bushels  equivalent  to  375  horses 


12  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

working  16  hours  a  day  for  120  days.  All  this  energy,  how- 
ever, is  not  lost,  because  the  carbon  stored  in  the  grain  and 
body  of  the  plant,  when  burned  or  eaten  by  man  or  beast, 
is  transformed  again  into  energy,  heat,  and  life  processes. 

Before  the  plant  whose  history  we  are  tracing  is  finally 
mature,  steps  are  taken  to  reproduce  the  species  before  it 
dies.  Somewhere  upon  the  plant  special  adaptations  are 
made  for  the  development  of  the  reproductive  cells.  These 
adaptations  constitute  the  flowers.  Two  kinds  of  cells  are 
produced.  •  They  may  be  in  the  same  flower  or  in  different 
flowers.  The  female  or  egg  cell  is  formed  as  the  foundation 
of  the  seed  in  the  pistil  of  the  flower  in  which  the  future 
embryo  is  to  develop.  The  male  cell  is  formed  as  a  pollen 
grain  in  the  stamen  of  the  flower.  Before  the  embryo  plant 
will  develop  and  the  seed  mature,  there  must  be  a  union  of 
the  male  and  female  cells  of  the  plant.  The  agencies  for 
bringing  these  two  cells  together  vary  widely.  Among  the 
plants,  gravity,  winds,  and  insects  are  the  common  agencies*. 
When  the  pollen  cell  and  the  egg  cell  unite,  then  the  embryo 
plant  begins  to  form.  The  little  leaves,  the  short  stem  on.  which 
the  roots  develop,  the  cotyledons  containing  the  plant-food 
for  the  developing  embryo  mature,  and  the  seed  enters  a 
dormant  or  resting  period,  awaiting  the  time  when  under 
favorable  conditions  it  may  begin  the  growth  as  mentioned 
at  the  beginning  of  this  discussion. 


CHAPTER  II 
WHEAT* 

As  source  of  world's  food  supply.  Wheat  bread  would 
sustain  life  better  than  any  other  one  article  of  food  in*  the 
world.  The  average  amount  of  Avheat  eaten  by  each  person 
in  the  United  States  is  five  bushels  a  year.  This  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  barrel  of  flour,  or-  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  loaves  of  bread.  Fortunately,  wheat  is  grown  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  temperate  zones. 

Varieties.  Wheat,  the  source  of  the  world's  most  impor- 
tant food,  is  a  grass.  Man  gets  much  of  his  food  from  the 
grasses  of  the  field.  There  are  eight  principal  species  of  cul- 
tivated wheat :  einkorn,  spelt,  emmer,  durum,  poulard,  Polish, 
club,  and  common  wheat.  There  are  two  hundred  and  forty- 
five  leading  varieties  of  wheat.  WTheat  is  classified  into  hard 
and  soft  varieties,  depending  upon  the  relative  degree  of 
hardness  of  the  ripe  grain;  and  into  spring  and  winter 
wheats  according  to  whether  they  will  mature  when  sown  in 
the  spring  or  in  the  autumn  preceding  harvest. 

In  the  selection  of  varieties,  the  most  important  considera- 
tions are  winter  hardiness,  stiffness  of  straw,  high  yielding 
and  disease  resisting  powers,  and  good  milling  qualities. 
Among  the  best  yielding  varieties  recommended  for  gen- 
eral use  in  the  North  Central  States  are  Rudy,  Farmer's 

13 


WHEAT  15 

Friend,  Mealy,  Gold  Coin,  Winter  King,  Michigan  Amber, 
Red  Wave,  Grains  o'  Gold,  Tennessee  Fultz,  Blue  Stem,  and 
Turkey  Red. 

Places  of  wheat  in  the  rotation.  Wheat  should  never  be 
grown  on  the  same  land  continuously.  Some  kind  of  crop 
rotation  must  be  practiced  in  order  to  get  the  best  results. 
What  the  other  crops  should  be  and  how  many  different 
ones  should  be  included  in  the  rotation,  will  depend  upon 
a  number  of  factors.  One  thing,  however,  is  well  estab- 
lished; that  is,  that  some  kind  of  a  legume,  usually  clover, 
should  have  a  place  in  the  rotation.  In  a  system  of  grain 
farming,  the  following  rotations  are  good: 

1.  Wheat  1.     Corn 

2.  Corn  2.     Oats 

3.  Oats  3.     Wheat 

4.  Clover  4.     Clover 

Sell  only  the  grain,  or  better,  feed  it  to  the  stock  on  the 
farm,  and  return  all  the  rest  to  the  soil,  using  limestone  and 
rock  phosphate  as  mineral  foods  where  needed. 

Many  state  experiment  stations  have  shown  beyond  ques- 
tion, that  rotation  of  crops  has  brought  higher  yields  of 
wheat  than  annual  cropping.  It  must  be  said  here,  however, 
that  crop  rotation  alone,  even  though  a  legume  be  Included 
in  the  system,  will  not  maintain  permanent  soil  fertility. 
That,  however,  is  another  question,  and  will  be  taken  up 
again  under  soils. 

Preparing  the  soil.  Preparation  of  wheat  ground  will 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  upon  the  previous 
crop.  Some  farmers  sow  wheat  in  standing  corn  in  Septem- 


16  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

ber.  The  thorough  cultivation  of  the  corn  crop  has  prepared 
the  soil  for  the  wheat.  A  much  better  practice  consists  in 
cutting  off  the  corn  and  thoroughly  disking  and  harrowing 
the  ground  before  drilling  the  wheat.  "When  wheat  follows 
oats,  the  ground  should  be  carefully  plowed  and  harrowed 
as  soon  as  possible  after  harvesting  the  oats.  Wheat  likes  a 
firm  sub-surface  and  a  fine  " onion  tilth"  for  a  seed-bed. 
When  wheat  follows  clover,  the  plowing  may  be  delayed  to 
get  the  advantage  of  some  second  growth  clover  to  plow  under, 
but  this  must  be  done  early  enough  .to  allow  the  seed-bed  to 
settle  before  sowing  the  wheat. 

Seed  time.  The  best  time  to  sow  winter  wheat  in  the 
central  states  varies  from  the  second  week  in  September  to 
the  first  week  in  October.  On  fertile,  well-prepared  soil, 
seeding  may  safely  be  done  later  than  where  conditions  are 
less  favorable. 

On  account  of  the  danger  of  trouble  with  the  Hessian  fly, 
it  is  advisable  to  delay  seeding  as  late  as  possible.  Late  sown 
wheat  often  escapes  infestation  from  the  fly,  and  will  often 
bB  just  as  far  ahead  when  winter  comes  on  as  the  earlier 
sown  wheat.  For  spring  wheat  the  land  may  either  be  plowed 
in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring.  The  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed  from  fall  or  spring  plowed  land  does  not  differ  from 
the  practices  already  described. 

Methods  of  sowing.  Wheat  does  better  when  sown  with 
a  drill.  From  experiments  in  drilling  and  broadcasting  the" 
results  have  invariably  been  in  favor  of  drilling,  especially 
with  winter  wheat.  Drilling  requires  less  seed  for  a  full 
uniform  stand,  and  insures  better  germination.  Drilled  wheat 


WHEAT  17 

will  stand  the  winter  better  than  that  which  is  sown  broad- 
cast. If  the  ground  is  trashy,  a  disk  drill  will  do  the  best 
work,  but  on  clean,  well-prepared  ground,  any  good  seed  drill 
is  efficient.  Seed  wheat  should  be  run  through  the  fanning 
mill  to  remove  the  weed  seeds,  dirt,  chaff,  and  damaged 
kernels. 

Rate  of  seeding.  With  medium-sized  seed  of  good  qual- 
ity, on  a  well-prepared  and  fertile  soil,  from  four  to  six 
pecks  per  acre  will  usually  be  sufficient  for  sowing.  Every 
farmer  must  determine  for  himself,  according  to  the  condi- 
tions of  his  own  land,  how  much  seed  should  be  used.  Winter 
wheat  is  not  sown  as  thickly  as  spring  wheat.  The  rate  is 
less  on  poor  soils  than  on  rich  soils. 

Seed  selection.  The  selection  of  good  seed  is  a  factor  in 
wheat  production  which  should  receive  the  careful  attention 
of  every  farmer.  As  a  means  of  increasing  his  wheat  yield, 
the  farmer  can  well  afford  to  select  his  seed  out  of  the  best 
portion  of  his  crop,  to  use  the  fan  mill,  and  to  grade  it  in' 
such  a  way  as  to  get  the  largest  and  plumpest  seed  for 
sowing. 

From  careful  tests  in  many  experiments,  it  has  been  shown 
that  large  and  plump  seeds  have  yielded  from  one  to  five 
bushels  more  per  acre  than  the  smaller  and  lighter  seeds.  It 
pays,  therefore,  to  take  the  trouble  to  grade  seeds  so  as  to 
get  the  largest  and  heaviest  seeds  for  sowing.  A  good  fan- 
ning mill  is  the  simplest  and  most  practical  means  of  grading 
seed  on  the  farm,  and  every  farmer  who  grows  small  grain 
to  any  considerable  extent  should  have  one. 

Any  variety  of  wheat  can  be  improved  and  kept  from  ' '  run- 


18  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

ning  out"  by  careful  seed  selection  and  good  soil  treatment. 

Management  of  wheat  after  harvesting.  Much  loss  in 
the  value  of  the  wheat  crop  results  every  year  due  to  expos- 
ure in  the  shock  before  threshing.  When  wheat  stands  in 
the  shock  for  several  weeks  exposed  to  the  weather,  the  grain 
loses  its  brightness  and  the  bran  becomes  brittle,  so  that  when 
milled  the  bran  crumbles  into  the  flour,  producing  inferior 
grades.  Fermentation  and  sprouting  may  also  occur  in  the 
shock  and  cause  serious  injury.  Whenever  wheat  cannot  be 
threshed  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough,  it  is  advisable  to  stack 
it,  for  the  market  value  of  the  grain  at  threshing  time  will 
often  be  enough  higher  to  pay  for  the  extra  trouble. 

Wheat  diseases.  The  wheat  crop  is  subject  to  the  rav- 
ages of  several  diseases.  There  are  two  more  or  less  common 
diseases  reducing  the  yield  of  wheat.  First,  smut  is  a  para- 
site which  destroys  the  kernels  in  the  head,  and  substitutes 
its  own  reproductive  parts  or  spores  in  place  of  them.  In 
the  second  place,  parasites,  such  as  scales,  rusts,  etc.,  attack 
the  stalk  or  leaves  of  the  plant,  absorbing  the  nourishment 
and  dwarfing  the  kernels.  Scientists  have  not  yet  succeeded 
in  working  out  methods  which  will  control  or  prevent  all  the 
diseases  to  which  the  wheat  plant  is  subject.  Experiment 
stations  all  emphasize  the  importance  of  treating  seed  wheat 
with  formaldehyde  as  a  disinfectant.  This  will  prevent  the 
" stinking  smut,"  and  greatly  reduce  other  diseases. 

Insect  enemies  of  wheat.  The  loss  of  wheat  each  year 
from  insect  pests  is  very  great.  The  Hessian  fly,  the  joint- 
worm,  and  the  wheat-stem  maggot  are  three  insects  taking 
heaviest  toll  from  our  fields. 


WHEAT 


19 


The  Hessian  fly.  The  adult  insect  is  a  small,  almost  black, 
two-winged  fly,  resembling  the  mosquito,  and  of  about  the 
same  size.  As  a  rule  the  flies  remain  close  to  the  ground, 
and  in  the  fall,  when  they  are  most  abundant,  they  may  be 


FIG.   3.     LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  HESSIAN  FLY 


seen  depositing  their  little  pink  eggs  in  the  grooves  of  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  eggs  hatch  into  the  larvae, 
which  change  from  a  pinkish  to  a  greenish-white  tinge  when 
full  grown.  The  larva  goes  into  the  pupa  or  "flaxseed" 
stage,  a  period  of  resting  in  which  the  larva  is  encased  in  a 


20  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

brownish  leathery  covering  resembling  a  flaxseed.     This  is 
found  at  the  base  of  the  plant  in  the  fall. 

There  are  two  generations  of  the  fly  during  the  year,  one 
in  the  spring  and  one  in  the  fall.  The  adults  issue  from  the 
flaxseed  on  the  stubble  in  September  and  deposit  their  eggs 
on  the  young  plant.  The  larvae  hatch  and  work  their  way 
down  into  the  leaf  sheath,  where  they  change  to  the  flaxseed 
stage  and  remain  over  winter.  The  infested  plant  has  no 
central  shoot,  is  leafy  and  stocky,  and  is  likely  to  die  out  in. 
the  winter.  The  spring  generation  of  the  fly  attacks  the  stem 
near  the  joints,  weakens  the  stem,  and  causes  the  plant  to 
fall  before  the  harvest. 

Proper  fertilization  and  culture  may  assist  the  plant  to 
resist  the  attack  of  the  fly,  and  late  sowing  may  avoid 
infestation. 

The  joint- worm.  The  adult  of  this  worm  is  a  small,  black, 
four-winged  insect  resembling  a  winged  ant.  The  grub  is 
white  and  about  an  eighth  inch  long.  The  entire  life  history 
of  this  pest  is  spent  within  the  stem  of  the  wheat.  In  the 
spring  the  larva  changes  to  the  pupa,  and  this  soon  changes 
to  the  adult,  which  gnaws  a  hole  in  the  stem  and  emerges. 
The  stem  is  often  warty  and  knotty  at  the  joints,  causing  it 
to  bend  or  break.  Upon  opening  one  of  these  joints  a  small 
grub  will  be  found.  There  is  no  remedy  once  a  field  becomes 
badly  infested  with  joint-worm.  The  plants  can  be  strength- 
ened and  helped  to  resist  the  attack  only  by  maintaining 
soil  fertility  and  good  cultural  methods.  • 

Keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil  so  that  plants  may  be 
properly  fed,  good  systems  of  crop  rotation,  and  clean  culti- 


WHEAT  21 

vafcion  will  contribute  much  to  the  success  of  the  farmer  in 
his  effort  to  combat  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  wheat  a  more  popular  cereal  for  bread  than 
corn  ? 

2.  How  does  wheat  rank  in  production  of  bushels  with 
the  other  leading  farm  crops  in  this  country?    What  is  the 
leading  wheat  country  of  the  world?     Which  states  of  this 
country  lead  in  wheat  production? 

3.  WThat  is  the  average  yield  per  acre  in  your  state  ?    What 
yields   have   good  farmers   and  state   experiment  stations 
obtained  ? 

4.  What  does  it  cost  to  produce  an  acre  of  wheat  in  your 
locality?    What  is  the  current  price  of  wheat  on  the  market? 

5.  What  good  qualities  should  be  sought  in  choosing  a 
variety  of  wheat  to  sow? 

6.  What  is  the  value  of  grading  seed?     How  is  it  most 
simply  done? 

7.  W^hat  is  the  place  of  wheat  in  a  good  system  of  crop 
rotation  ? 

&     What  fertilizers  are  needed  in  most  soils  to  insure  a 
larger  crop  of  wheat? 

9.  What  are  the  best  methods  of  combating  diseases  and 
insect  pests  of  wheat? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  " bonanza "  wheat  farming?    Where 
is  it  practiced?    What  is  the  future  of  this  method? 

11.  What  is  the  value  of  covering  winter  wheat  with 
straw? 

12.  Since  we  can  open  up  little  more  land  to  cultivation, 
and  the  population  of  our  country  is  increasing  at  the  rate 
of  twenty-five  per  cent  each  decade,  how  is  the  bread  supply 
of  the  future  to  be  obtained? 


22  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  The  wheat  grain.    Examine  grains  of  wheat  that  have 
been  soaked  a  few  hours  in  water.     The  use  of  a  hand  lens 
will  assist  in  this  examination. 

On  one  side  of  the  grain  note  the  deep  furrow  or  crease. 
On  the  opposite  side  at  the  bottom  there  is  a  small,  rough, 
circular  spot  called  the  embryo  or  germ.  Within  it  are  folded 
the  first  root  and  leaves  of  the  young  wheat  plant.  The  top 
part  of  the  grain  is  covered  with  tiny  hairs  which  together 
are  called  the  brush.  The  base  is  the  opposite  end  of  the 
grain. 

Cut  one  grain  lengthwise  with  the  crease  and  the  other 
across  it.  Note  the  color  of  the  interior.  Flour  is  made  from 
the  interior  portion  of  the  grain.  The  grain  is  surrounded 
by  a  hull  which  furnishes  the  bran.  How  many  coats  can 
you  find  in  this  hull  covering  the  grain?  About  seventy-five 
per  cent  of  the  grain  is  made  into  flour,  the  rest  is  bran  and 
shorts  or  middlings. 

Draw  cross  and  longitudinal  sections  of  the  wheat  grain. 
Draw  also  a  whole  grain,  labeling  the  parts  observed  as 
directed  above.  Keep  a  neat  notebook  record  of  all  obser- 
vations, facts  noted,  and  drawings  made. 

2.  The  head  of  wheat.     If  possible  at  this  season,  pro- 
vide each  student  with  a  few  heads  of  wheat.     Let  each 
student  examine  the  head  of  wheat  closely,  verifying  the 
statements  and  answering  the  questions  below: 

The  head  of  wheat  is  a  spike.  The  central  stem  of  the  spike 
is  called  the  racliis.  The  racliis  is  notched  on  two  sides  and 
from  each  of  these  notches  there  grows  a  very  short  stem  or 
spikelet,  that  has  attached  to  it  several  bunches  of  small 
husks  containing  seeds.  How  many  grains  to  the  spikelet? 
There  are  two  chaffy  parts  around  each  spikelet,  called  outer 
glumes.  Each  kernel  in  the  spikelet  is  enclosed  on  the  out- 


WHEAT  23 

side  by  a  flowering  glume;  inside  of  this  is  the  palea.  There 
may  be  one  or  more  sterile  flowers  in  the  spikelet  which  did 
not  develop  into  kernels  of  wheat. 


GERM 


STARCH 
CBLLS 


FIG.   4.     KERNEL  OF  WHEAT 

Remove  all  the  spikelets  from  a  head  of  wheat.  Draw  the 
racMs.  Draw  a  grain  with  its  chaffy  parts  opened,  and  label 
the  palea,  the  grain,  the  flowering  glume,  and  the  outer  glume. 

Count  the  grains  in  one  spike  of  wheat.  Find  average  of 
all  grains  counted  in  the  different  heads  by  the  class.  Are 
there  any  empty  glumes  in  your  spike  of  wheat  ?  What  may 
have  caused  empty  glumes? 

3.  Wheat  samples  report.  Provide  each  student  with 
100  grains  of  wheat  as  a  sample.  Copy  the  following  report 
card  in  your  notebook,  and  fill  out  properly  from  your  obser- 
vation of  the  sample  of  wheat  given : 

REPORT  CARD 

WHEAT 


Name 

No.   Sample. 
Variety  


24  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

f  Whitish    per  cent 

Color      JRed    percent 

J  Hard  and  vitreous per  cent 

ess  \Soft  and   starchy per  cent 

Size  of     JLarge per  cent 

Grain     \Small    per  cent 

Unsound  grain per  cent 

Foreign  matter . .  .per  cent 

Weight  of  100  grains grams 

Remarks  .  


EXPLANATION  OF  POINTS 

Color.    Whitish  wheat  is  of  a  clear,  somewhat  yellowish  color.    Red 

may  be  from  dull  to  clear. 
Hardness.     Hard  shows  little  or  no  starchy  portion.     Soft  shows 

nothing  but  starch. 
Bize.    Large  size  grains  include  those  measuring  ^  inch  or  more  in 

length  and  with  a  proportional  width  and  thickness. 

4.  The  wheat  plant.  Go  to  the  wheat  field  or  to  some 
place  where  volunteer  wheat  is  growing,  select  a  well-devel- 
oped wheat  plant,  loosen  the  soil  about  its  roots,  and  remove 
it  with  as  many  of  its  roots  attached  as  possible.  Wash  the 
soil  from  the  roots  as  thoroughly  as  possible  and  take  to  the 
laboratory  for  study.  Each  pupil  (or  each  two)  should  be 
provided  with  a  plant,  and  should  examine  and  report  upon 
all  points  as  follows: 

What  kinds  of  roots  has  the  wheat  plant  ?  Note  the  enlarged 
place  where  the  roots  and  stalk  meet;  this  place  is  called  the 
stool.  The  characteristic  of  the  wheat  to  spread  out  over  a 
small  area  and  take  root  is  called  tillering  or  stooling.  How 
many  stems  has  your  plant?  The  stems  are  called  culms. 
How  many  leaves  on  your  plant?  Where  do  they  start? 
Carefully  tear  a  leaf  from  the  culm,  and  notice  how  the  lower 


WHEAT  25 

part  of  the  leaf  surrounds  the  culm.  This  part  is  called  the 
sheath,  and  the  loose  part  of  the  leaf  is  the  leaf  blade.  The 
faint  ring  from  which  the  leaves  start  is  the  node.  Count 
the  nodes.  The  space  between  the  nodes  is  the  internode. 
Note  the  length  of  the  internodes.  Split  the  culm  and  exam- 
ine the  inside. 


CHAPTER  III 
OATS 

Items  of  general  interest.  Oats,  as  a  farm  crop,  have 
come  into  such  prominence  with  the  development  of  the  cen- 
tral and  northern  portions  of  this  country  that  now  they  are 
one  of  the  important  cereals  of  these  sections.  Like  other 
cereals,  the  oat  is  an  annual  grass,  with  jointed  stem  and 
fibrous  roots  system.  One  seed  usually  produces  from  three 
to  seven  stems  .having  a  height  which  varies  from  two  to  five 
feet.  The  flower  of  oats  is  in  the  form  of  a  panicle,  consist- 
ing of  a  central  stem  from  which  numerous  branches  are 
given  off,  bearing  the  spikelets  of  flowers.  The  developed 
kernel  remains  tightly  enclosed  within  the  flowering  glume 
and  palea. 

Types  of  oats.  Oats  may  be  divided,  according  to  the 
appearance  of  the  panicle,  into  two  classes;  spreading  or 
closed.  Oats  may  be  classified  into  spring  or  winter  varieties. 
They  may  also  be  divided  into  early,  medium,  and  late  varie- 
ties, based  upon  the  time  of  ripening.  Sixty-days  is  a  well 
known  early  variety,  while  Siberian,  Swedish  Select,  and 
American  Banner  are  common,  medium,  and  late  varieties. 
On  the  market,  oats  are  classed  according  to  color  of  the 
grain ;  as  white,  black,  and  mixed  oats. 

Adaptation.  Oats  are  best  adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  cli- 

26 


OATS  27 

mate,  and  therefore  do  best  in  northern  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. Oats  have  a  wide  adaptation  to  soils,  and  fair  yields  may 
be  secured  on  almost  all  types  of  soils  in  cool,  moist  climates. 
Oats  draw  heavily  upon  the  moisture  and  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Place  in  the  rotation.  Oats  usually  follow  corn  in  the 
rotation  in  the  corn  belt  states.  Common  four-year  rotations 
are:  corn,  wlieat,  oats,  and  clover;  corn,  oats,  clover,  and 
ivheat;  or  corn,  corn,  oats,  and  clover.  When  the  farmer 
desires  to  get  a  stand  of  clover  or  alfalfa  under  oats,  the 
best  results  are  obtained  by  using  an  early  variety  of  oats. 

Preparation  of  seed-bed.  Oats,  being  hardy  plants,  re- 
quire less  preparation  of  the  ground  for  seeding  than  most 
other  grain  crops.  In  many  places  oats  are  seeded  on  the 
corn  ground  without  any  previous  preparation.  Sometimes 
they  are  sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  a  disk  or  spike- 
tooth  harrow.  They  are  often  soAvn  with  a  disk  drill,  in 
which  case  a  more  uniform  stand  is  secured  and  usually  a 
larger  yield  is  obtained. 

Time  and  rate  of  seeding.  Best  results  are  usually  obtained 
from  early  sowing.  The  best  time  to  sow  oats  is  as  soon  as 
the  soil  is  dry  enough  in  the  spring  to  get  on  to  it  with  horses 
and  implements.  Seed  oats  should  be  run  through  a  fanning 
mill  to  remove  small  kernels,  sticks,  trash,  and  weed  seeds. 
The  rate  of  seeding  varies  from  six  to  ten  or  more  pecks  per 
acre,  the  common  rate  being  about  eight  pecks  per  acre. 

Harvesting1.  Oats  are  harvested  by  methods  similar  to 
those  of  wheat.  When  the  heads  have  turned  yelldw  and  the 
grains  have  reached  the  hard  dough  stage  they  should 
be  cut.  In  order  that  the  oats  may  dry  thoroughly  the  bun- 


28  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

dies  are  set  up  in  shocks  of  ten  to  twelve  bundles  each. 
Thrash  from  the  shock  as  soon  as  they  have  dried  out,  or 
from  the  stack  as  in  the  case  of  wheat. 

Uses  of  oats.  The  greater  part  of  the  oat  crop  is  used  for 
feeding  live  stock.  They  are  relatively  high  in  protein,  the 
muscle-building  material,  and  are  therefore  valuable  for  young 
animals,  and  for  feeding  horses  at  heavy  work.  Oats  have 
long  been  used  as  a  human  food,  in  the  form  of  oatmeal  or 
ground  oats.  Oats  straw  is  very  valuable  for  feeding  live 
stock.  It  is  frequently  used  as  roughage  for  keeping  stock 
over  winter.  It  is  also  valuable  for  bedding.  Oafs  may  also 
be  used  to  supply  quick  temporary  pastures  for  all  kinds  of 
live  stock. 

Smut  of  oats.  The  most  destructive  disease  that  attacks 
the  oats  is  the  loose  smut.  It  may  be  recognized  in  the  field 
by  the  black  powdery  spores  that  attack  the  heads  and  pre- 
vent the  grain  and  the  glumes  from  developing.  The  cov- 
ered smut  is  a  similar  disease,  affecting  only  the  kernels  of 
the  oats,  which  are  displaced  by  black  spore  masses.  Methods 
for  controlling  these  smuts  are  described  in  the  practical 
exercises  and  home  projects  of  this  chapter. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  the  value  of  the  oats  crop  in  your  com- 
munity compare  with  that  of  other  grain  crops? 

2.  What  are  the  common  returns  per  acre  for  oats  in 
your  community  ?    What  should  reasonably  be  expected  under 
improved  conditions  of  soil,  seed,  etc.? 

3.  Why  are  oats  seeded  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring? 


OATS  29 

4.  List  a  number  of  uses  that  oats  serve. 

5.  Name  the  common  varieties  of  oats. 

6.  How  is  oats  smut  successfully  controlled? 

7.  What  is  the  current  price  of  oats  on  the  market? 

8.  What  is  the  legal  weight  per  bushel  of  oats  ? 

9.  What  are  the  leading  oat-producing  countries  of  the 
world  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Study  of  the  oat  plant. 

(a)  Each  student  should  be  provided  with  a  specimen  of 
the  mature  oat  plant  including  stalks,  leaves,  and  panicles. 

(b)  Explanation  of  terms: 

Panicle — The  complete  "head"  of  oats. 

Eachis — The  straight  stem  forming  the  axis  of  the 

panicle. 
S pikelets — Branches    from    the    rachis,    bearing    the 

grains. 
Glumes,  palea,  etc. — Same  as  in  wheat. 

(c)  Make  a  sketch  of  an  oat  head,  showing  all  these  parts. 
Label  each  part  of  the  drawing. 

(d)  Note  the   following  points,   and  make  notations  in 
your  notebook: 

X-    Number  of  grains  to  a  spikelet.    Number  of  infer- 
tile flowers. 

2.  Number  of  glumes  to  a  grain. 

3.  How  do  flowering  glumes  and  outer  glumes  differ 
from  those  in  wheat? 

4.  Compare  wheat  and  oats  in  amount  of  stooling 
and  in  amount  of  leaf  surface-. 

2.  Problems  for  oat  panicles. 

(a)     Each  student  should  have  a  well  filled  panicle  of  oats 
for  this  problem. 


30  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Number  of  grains  in  the  panicle. ......... 

2.  Total  weight  of  grains 

3.  Number  grains  per  pound 

4.  Number  panicles  to  make  a  bushel 

5.  Number  panicles  per  acre  to  make  100  bush- 

els ....... . ......  v ........ 

6.  Number  panicles  per  square  foot  to  make 

100  bushels  per  acre 


3.  Examination  of  sample  of  oats  for  seed. 

(a)  Count  out  100  grains  of  oats  for  this  exercise. 

(b)  Examine  the  oats  and  fill  out  the  following  table: 

n  ,      f  Yellowish % 

Color  ^  „   ...  , 

1  Reddish , % 

(  Large % 

Size   W  0 

[Small  .. % 

Unsound  grain  and  foreign  matter % 

Weight  of  100  grains grams 

Number  grains  per  pound 

Number  sown  per  square  foot,  2  bushels 

per  acre 

Number  grains  in  5  grams 

Per  cent  of  hulls % 

4.  Treating*  oats  for  smut.    This  exercise  may  be  made  a 
demonstration  at  the  school  or  some  nearby  farm  home,  or 
it  may  be  carried  on  as  a  home  project. 

Take  a  pound  of  formalin  (formaldehyde,  40  per  cent)  and 
dissolve  it  in  50  gallons  of  water.  Spread  the  grain  out  on 
a  clean  floor  and  wet  it  thoroughly  with  the  solution,  using 
about  a  gallon  for  each  bushel  of  the  grain.  The  work  can 
be  easily  and  thoroughly  done  if  one  person  shovels  the  oats 
over  while  another  applies  the  solution  with  a  sprinkling 
can.  Then  stack  the  grain  up  in  a  pile,  cover  it  over  with 
carpets  or  blankets  to  retain  the  fumes  of  the  formalin,  and 


OATS  31 

allow  it  to  remain  two  or  three  hours,  or  even  over  night. 
Spread  the  grain  out  to  dry  before  seeding.  It  should  not 
be  returned  to  the  same  bags,  unless  they  are  treated  with 
the  solution. 

Describe  in  detail  in  your  notebook  the  method  used  in 
this  project. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CLOVER 

The  Queen  of  King:  Corn.  Dr.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins  of  the 
University  of  Illinois  has  written  a  little  circular  which  he 
calls  "The  Story  of  a  King  and  Queen."  Corn  is  the  king, 
and  clover  the  queen.  In  this  circular  Dr.  Hopkins  says: 

" Young  King  Corn  found  an  ideal  home  for  himself  on 
the  dark  prairie  soil,  and  for  many  years  he  lived  as  a  very 
independent  bachelor ;  but  there  finally  came  a  time  when  the 
supply  of  food  which  he  had  found  already  prepared  in  the 
soil  became  partially  exhausted,  and  in  hunger  he  said  to 
himself,  '  It  is  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone. '  He  then  sought 
a  princess  named  'Clover/  and  thereafter  always  rejoiced  that 
she  consented  to  be  his  Queen.  Where  she  prepared  the  soil, 
King  Corn  was  again  as  well  fed  as  ever. 

" Years  passed,  and  they  were  happy  and  prosperous  years; 
but  finally  both  corn  and  clover  were  forced  to  remember  the 
ancient  saying,  'And  this  too  shall  pass  away/  King  Corn 
began  to  complain  again  that  his  bed  was  getting  hard  and 
the  food  furnished  him  was  not  sufficient.  Queen  Clover 
replied  that  she,  too,  was  suffering  from  hunger,  and  that  her 
home  in  the  soil  which  had  always  been  sweet  and  clean  was 
becoming  sour." 

32 


CLOVER 


33 


Thus  the  story  continues,  telling  the  relations  of  clover  to 
soil  and  crops. 

Red  clover.  This  "Red  Plumed  Knight,''  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called  by  its  admirers,  is  a  native  of  Persia.  Clover 
is  more  generally  grown  as  a  forage  crop  than  any  other 

legume;  it  is  adapted  to  a  wide 
variety  of  soils  and  climates ;  it  is 
rich  in  nitrogen  and  furnishes  a 
large  amount  of  organic  matter  for 
green  manure;  it  is  nutritious, 
palatable,  and  valuable  as  a  'feed- 
ing substance;  and  it  occupies  an 
important  place  in  crop  rotation. 
It  is  a  perennial,  and,  like  most 
other  clovers,  does  best  on  deep, 
rich  loam  that  is  well  drained. 

Soil  preparation.  When  the  soil 
is  in  the  best  possible  tilth,  the 
clover  "catch"  is  surer.  Lime  in 
considerable  quantities  must  be 
present  in  the  soil,  and  other  min- 
eral plant-foods,  such  as  phosphorus  and  potassium,  are  nec- 
essary elements  in  the  growth  of  clover.  In  order  to  establish 
a  permanent  and  healthful  soil  for  corn  as  well  as  for  clover, 
about  one-half  ton  per  acre  of  pure  steamed  bone-meal,  or  a 
ton  of  fine-ground  rock  phosphate  and  two  tons  per  acre  of 
ground  limestone,  where  needed,  should  be  applied  once  every 
four  or  five  years.  Although  clover  has  the  power  of  pro- 
curing most  of  its  nitrogen  supply  from  the  air,  through  the 


FIG.    5.    THE    CLOVER 
PLANT      ' 


34  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

bacteria  on  the  roots,  yet  land  rich  in  nitrogen  grows  the 
better  clover  crop.  Liberal  applications  of  barnyard  manure 
as  a  top-dressing  generally  give  good  returns. 

Seeding1.  Clover  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  in  February, 
March  or  April  on  land  seeded  the  previous  fall  to  wheat  or 
rye;  or  it  may  be  seeded  in  the  spring  with  oats  or  barley. 
From  eight  to  twelve  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  sown,  if  the 
seed  is  of  good  quality  and  the  soil  in  good  condition ;  other- 
wise the  quantity  should  be  increased.  Sometimes  red  clover 
is  sown  in  August  or  September,  where  the  soil  is  in  condi- 
tion to  allow  a  good  "catch"  before  the  winter. 

Clover  in  crop  rotation.  We  can  scarcely  think  of  any 
good  system  of  crop  rotation  without  the  use  of  clover  or 
some  other  legume.  For  three-year  rotations,  such  systems 
as  corn,  oats,  and  clover,  or  corn,  wheat,  and  clover,  are 
used.  Four-year  rotations  (in  grain  farming)  include  wheat, 
corn,  oats,  and  clover;  or  corn,  corn,  oats,  and  clover  (in 
live-stock  farming).  In  the  four-year  rotation  for  grain  farm- 
ing a  "catch"  crop  of  clover  may  be  seeded  on  the  wheat 
ground  and  plowed  under  the  next  spring  for  corn,  and  the 
regular  clover  crop  in  the  fourth  year  may  be  mowed  once 
or  twice  and  left  lying  on  the  land,  the  seed  crop  afterwards 
being  harvested  with  a  buncher  attached  to  the  mower. 

"In  grain  farming,  only  grain  or  seed  should  be  sold  from 
the  farm;  all  clover,  straw,  and  stalks  being  returned  to  the 
land  in  order  to  maintain  the  supply  of  organic  matter  and 
nitrogen,  which  are  just  as  important  as  limestone  and  phos- 
phorus ;  and  in  live-stock  farming,  all  produce  should  be  used 
for  feed  and  bedding  and  all  manure  carefully  saved  and 


CLOVER  35 

returned  to  the  land,  preferably  within  a  day  or  two  after 
it  is  produced,  in  order  to  prevent  the  waste  of  plant-food. " 
— Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Circular  145. 

Manural  value  of  clover.  A  clover  crop  turned  under 
furnishes  fresh  organic  matter  which  decomposes  rapidly, 
improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  giving  up  avail- 
able nitrogen  for  the  plant's  use,  and  liberating  mineral 
plant-foods  of  the  soil,  otherwise  unavailable  as  plant-food. 

One  ton  of  clover  hay  contains  as  much  nitrogen  as  four 
tons  of  stable  manure,  and,  in  addition,  five  pounds  of  phos- 
phorus, thirty  pounds  of  potassium,  eight  pounds  of  mag- 
nesium, and  about  thirty  pounds  of  calcium.  There  is  about 
the  same  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  roots  and  stubble  of 
clover  as  the  clover  obtained  from  the  soil,  so  that  removing 
the  clover  crop  does  not  add  any  new  supply  of  nitrogen  to 
the  soil.  In  systems  of  permanent  soil  fertility,  clover  must 
be  used  in  the  rotation,  and  either  fed  to  live  stock  with  the 
manure  returned  to  the  soil,  or  all  of  the  crop  but  the  seed 
turned  under  to  supply  the  nitrogen  and  organic  matter 
necessary  for  the  -maximum  production  of  farm  crops. 

As  to  whether  one  should  turn  under  all  the  clover  growth, 
either  as  manure  or  mulch,  depends  upon  how  much  of  the 
nitrogen  it  contains  is  needed  to  balance  the  phosphorus  in 
the  soil.  If  the  second  crop  of  clover  is  sufficient  to  balance 
the  phosphorus,  the  first  clover  crop  may  be  removed  and 
the  seed  taken  from  !he  second  crop  and  the  straw  returned 
to  the  land.  Where  the  soil  needs  both  crops,  the  first  crop 
may  be  clipped  and  left  on  the  ground  and  a  buncher  used 
to  cut  the  seed  from  the  second  crop.  The  whole  growth  with 


36  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  first  clipped  crop  is  then  turned  under  as  a  green  manure. 

Red  clover  as  hay.  Next  to  alfalfa,  red  clover  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  forage  crops  for  dairy  feeding.  In  fact, 
red  clover  is  a  good  feed  for  almost  every  farm  animal.  It 
furnishes  a  protein  content  to  stock  feed,  giving  a  better  bal- 
anced ration  than  timothy  hay.  Clover  is  also  a  good  soiling 
crop,  and  should  supply  from  eight  to  ten  tons  per  acre  for 
this  purpose.  Clover  should  be  cut  when  free  from  moisture, 
raked  into  windrows,  then  allowed  to  cure  in  haycocks.  The 
chief  value  of  clover,  like  alfalfa,  is  contained  in  the  leaves, 
and  if  the  leaves  dry  in  the  swath  and  break  off  in  handling 
much  of  the  value  is  lost. 

If  the  crop  gets  wet  while  curing,  the  color,  rich  odor,  an<J 
much  of  the  palatability  are  lost. 

Red  clover  furnishes  excellent  pasture  for  stock  of  all 
kinds,  but  excessive  pasturing  results  in  the  destruction  of 
the  plant. 

Clover  seed.  As  was  stated  above,  the  seed  is  usually 
harvested  from  the  second  crop.  The  largest  jdelds  of  seed 
are  usually  obtained  when  the  first  crop  is  cut  early,  because 
in  this  case  the  seed  of  the  second  crop  will  form  earlier  and 
possibly  escape  the  second  brood  of  clover  seed  midge,  and 
other  clover  seed  insects.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  bum- 
blebees, as  they  feed  upon  the  clover  blossom,  pollenate  the 
flowers  and  thus  make  possible  fertile  clover  seed.  For  this 
reason,  more  than  any  other  oftentimes,  the  first  crop  of 
clover  is  not  a  profitable  seed  crop,  since  bumblebees  are  not 
so  abundant  in  the  early  summer. 

Clover  should  be  cut  for  seed  when  the  heads  have  turned 


CLOVER  37 

brown  and  the  seeds  are  in  the  dough  stage.  The  average 
yield  is  about  two  bushels  per  acre,  but  by  controlling  the 
insects  the  yield  should  be  nearly  doubled. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  Dr.  Hopkin  's  ' '  The  Story  of  a  King  and  Queen ' ' 
so  well  applied  to  corn  and  clover? 

2.  Describe  the  clover  plants  as  to  the  nature  of  the  roots, 
stems,  leaves,  and  flowers. 

3.  What  and  how  much  plant-food  does  a  ton  of  clover 
hay  require? 

4.  Describe  a  crop  rotation  system  where  clover  enters  as 
one  crop. 

5.  Where  is  clover  seed  sown  ?    How  much  seed  is  required 
per  acre  ?    What  is  the  current  price  of  the  seed  ?    How  may 
we  increase  the  production  and  yield  of  clover  seed? 

6.  When  is  clover  hay  usually  cut  ?    Describe  the  methods 
of  harvesting  and  handling  the  hay. 

7.  Explain  the  value  of  clover  as  a  green  manure  crop. 

8.  Try  to  show  whether  it  is  more  profitable  to  turn 
under  the  clover  crop  or  to  cut  it  as  hay  in  a  system  of  per- 
manent soil  fertility. 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  The  clover  plant.  Dig  up  a  clover  plant,  get  as  many 
roots  as  possible,  wash  them  clean,  and  bring  the  whole  plant 
to  the  laboratory  for  study. 

Observe  and  note  the  following  points : 

(a)  Number  and  length  of  stems  from  the  common  root. 
Are  stems-  erect,  spreading,  or  twining? 

(b)  Are  there  any  branches? 


38  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

(c)  Kind,  number,  and  length  of  roots.     Look  for  the 
nodules  on  the  roots.    These  contain  the  bacteria  which  have 
the  power  of  obtaining  the  free  nitrogen  from  the  soil  air 
and  storing  it  in  the  plant. 

(d)  Kind,  shape,  and  arrangement  of  the  leaves.    Sketch 
a  leaf. 

(e)  If  the  clover  is  in  bloom,  notice  the  location,  form, 
and  color  of  the  blossom. 

(f )  If  in  seed,  note  kind,  number,  and  shape  of  seed  pods. 
Note  the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pod.    Draw  a  seed  pod  and 
an  enlarged  single  seed. 

(g)  Draw  the  whole  plant  in  your  notebook,   showing 
roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  flowers. 

2.  Examining  and  testing-  clover  seed  for  purity  and  ger- 
mination.   Clover  seed  frequently  shows  a  weed  content  of 
from  one  to  seven  per  cent,  and  a  germination  as  low  as  forty 
per  cent.     It  is,  therefore,  highly  important  that  we  have 
pure  seed  of  high  germination. 

(a)  Count  out  100  seeds  from  a  sample  given.    Separate 
the  seeds  into  three  lots — good  clover  seed,  weed  seeds,  and 
foreign  matter.    What  percentage  is  good  seed?    How  much 
would  a  farmer  pay  for  a  bushel  of  good  seed  at  the  rate  per 
bushel  of  the  seed  examined? 

(b)  Place  100  seeds  on  moist  blotting  paper  laid  in  a 
shallow  place.    Lay  a  moist  filter  paper  over  the  seeds,  invert 
a  second  plate  over  the  first,  and  set  away  for  twenty-four 
hours. 

Examine  and  record  the  percentage  of  viable  seeds. 
(The  Crop  Improvement  Committee,  64  Board  of  Trade, 
Chicago,  has  an  excellent  blotter  for  small  seed  testing.) 

3.  Examination  of  clover  seed  insects.    There  are  three 
insects  that  must  be  guarded  against  in  the  raising  of  a  good 
crop  of  clover  seed:    the  seed  midge,  the  seed  chalcid,  and 
the  seed  caterpillar.    The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  green 


CLOVER  39 

flower  heads  the  latter  part  of  May.  The  newly  hatched 
larvae  feed  upon  the  young  clover  seed. 

Pupils  should  gather  specimens  of  the  larvae  of  the  clover 
seed  midge  for  examination.  If  the  study  is  made  in  the  sum- 
mer, collect  clover  heads  partly  green  and  partly  in  bloom, 
and  place  in  tight  glass  jars.  The  larvae  present  will  emerge, 
and  may  be  seen  and  counted.  In  uutumn  larvae  of  various 
sizes  may  be  found  in  dead  clover  heads,  before  they  go  to 
the  ground  to  winter.  Collect  and  examine  a  number  of 
clover  heads  for  the  seed  insects. 

Clover  cut  about  the  middle  of  June  results  in  the  killing 
of  the  undeveloped  larvae  and  the  saving  of  the  seed  crop. 

A  clover  head  half  red  and  half  green  usually  indicates 
that  the  seed  midge  is  present. 


CHAPTER  V 
ALFALFA 

The  plant.  Alfalfa  is  an  ideal  forage  plant.  It  belongs 
to  the  legume  family,  to  which  cow-peas,  soy  beans,  and  red 
clover  belong.  It  was  grown  in  southwestern  Asia  many  cen- 
turies ago  and  came  to  California  by  way  of  South  America 
at  a  very  early  date.  Later  it  was  successfully  grown  in 
Kansas,  and  since  we  have  learned  its  requirements  it  is  now 
being  grown  in  every  state  of  the  Union. 

Why  should  the  farmer  who  has  forty  acres  of  land  buy 
the  forty  adjacent  acres,  when  he  can  utilize  the  forty  lying 
beneath  and  the  forty  lying  above  his  present  holdings  by 
growing  alfalfa?  When  we  remember  that  the  alfalfa  root 
reaches  down  and  draws  much  of  its  food  from  lower  levels 
untouched,  and  that  it  utilizes  large  quantities  of  nitrogen 
occupying  so  fully  the  air  above,  than  we  can  see  that  this 
reference  to  the  forty  below  and  the  forty  above  is  not  alto- 
gether a  myth.  Since  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  nitrogen 
is  present  over  every  acre  of  land,  the  farmer  who  grows 
alfalfa  is  literally  a  millionaire.  His  millions  are  in  the  air. 

Alfalfa  is  a  perennial  plant  with  purple  flowers.  The 
numerous  stems  which  are  produced  arise  from  a  crown ;  they 
grow  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  and  are  erect 
or  spreading.  The  long  taproot  penetrates  to  a  great  depth, 

40 


ALFALFA  41 

with  many  small  secondary  roots.  There  are  three  leaflets 
to  each  leaf,  the  third  leaflet  having  a  short  stalk  of  its  own, 
instead  of  growing  from  the  same  point,  as  in  the  case  of 
red  clover.  The  seed  pods  are  in  coils,  brown  when  ripe,  and 
contain  several  seeds.  The  seeds  are  somewhat  kidney  shaped 
and  about  the  same  size  as  red  clover  seeds. 

Values  of  alfalfa.  There  are  three  great  values  of  alfalfa 
as  a  farm  crop : 

First,  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops,  commercially, 
that  the  farmer  can  grow.  "When  he  is  able  to  cut  from  three 
to  five  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  per  acre  during  one  season,  and  sell 
this  hay  at  from  $15  to  $20  per  ton,  he  begins  to  realize  the 
money  value  of  alfalfa.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  for  a 
farmer  to  clear  from  $50  to  $60  an  acre  on  his  alfalfa  crop. 

Second,  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  live-stock  feeds 
grown  on  the  farm.  Alfalfa  is  rich  in  protein,  and  thus  helps 
to  balance  the  ration  in  feeding  corn,  ensilage,  or  timothy 
hay.  Alfalfa  has  been  found  to  be  the  best  general  feed  for 
dairy  cows,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  and  even  for  swine  and  poul- 
try, in  the  production  of  what  is  most  desired  in  these 
animals. 

Third,  it  fits  into  systems  of  crop  rotation  planned  to 
maintain  permanent  soil  fertility.  Alfalfa  being  a  legume, 
serves,  as  does  the  clover,  to  draw  free  nitrogen  from  the  air 
to  enrich  the  soil.  The  long,  deep  root  system  of  the  alfalfa 
enables  it  to  feed  below  common  soil  levels,  bringing  to  the 
surface  soil  increasing  portions  of  organic  matter  and  plant- 
food  to  be  incorporated  in  the  soil  upon  its  disintegration 
and  decay. 


42  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Growing1  alfalfa.  The  growing  of  alfalfa  is  no  longer  a 
mystery.  An  Illinois  farmer  writes,  "During  the  unusually 
dry  period  of  1913  we  harvested  on  our  farm  three  full  crops 
of  about  three  and  a  half  tons  per  acre  and  permitted  a  good 
fourth  crop  to  remain  on  the  land  for  winter  protection.  We 
thought  that  $66.50  per  acre  was  sufficient  for  an  unfavor- 
able farming  year  like  1913. " 

There  are  many  good  reasons  why  more  farmers  should 
grow  alfalfa.  There  need  be  no  fear  of  overproduction  should 
it  result  in  the  feeding  of  more  live  stock — an  operation  prof- 
itable both  as  a  business  and  as  a  soil  builder.  In.  brief, 
alfalfa  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  by  adding 
organic  matter  and  by  loosening  it,  owing  to  its  deep  roots. 
It  improves  the  chemical  condition  by  adding  nitrogen  and, 
in  its  disintegration,  by  liberating  other  plant-foods.  It  fur- 
nishes a  forage  food  of  first  rank  for  the  live  stock  on  the 
farm,  and  as  long  as  it  sells  from  $15  to  $20  per  ton  it  will 
tend  to  fill  the  purse  of  the  farmer  as  well. 

Soil  requirements.  Soil  upon  which  alfalfa  is  to  be  grown 
should  be  well  drained  and  should  contain  a  good  supply  of 
organic  matter,  lime  and  phosphorus.  On  well-drained  corn 
soils,  liberal  applications  of  limestone,  two  to  five  tons  per 
acre,  will  usually  prove  helpful  and  profitable.  In  order  to 
give  alfalfa  a  good  start,  some  phosphorus  can  be  applied 
with  profit.  Five  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  fine  ground 
steam  bone-meal  or  acid  phosphate  is  quickly  available  plant- 
food  for  this  purpose.  Any  good  well-drained  soil  with  plenty 
of  lime,  active  organic  matter,  and  phosphorus  will  grow 
alfalfa,  providing  there  is  no  hard  pan  or  rock  within  three 


ALFALFA  43 

or  four  feet  of  the  surface  to  interfere  with  the  development 
of  the  alfalfa  root. 

Seeding  alfalfa.  Alfalfa  may  be  seeded  in  April  if  the 
soil  is  free  from  grass  and  weed  seeds.  June  and  July  seed- 
ing give  good  results,  but  under  favorable  conditions  best 
stands  may  be  secured  from  August.,  and  September  seeding. 
Many  favor  spring  sowing  with  one  bushel  of  oats  per  acre 
as  a  nurse  crop.  In  this  case  it  is  best  to  mow  the  oats  for 
hay  before  they  mature.  With  this  plan  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  harvest  a  fair  crop  of  alfalfa  in  August.  Alfalfa 
should  not  be  pastured  the  first  year.  Fifteen  to  eighteen 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient. 

In  order  to  give  alfalfa  the  best  possible  conditions,  the 
ground  should  be  prepared  with  great  care.  It  should  be 
plowed  in  the  fall  or  early  spring,  and  then  stirred  at  least 
once  a  week  from  early  spring  until  seeding  time.  Disking, 
harrowing,  and  rolling  the  ground  in  order  to  keep  it  worked 
up  before  seeding  not  only  prepares  a  good  seed-bed,  but 
helps  to  keep  out  grass  and  weeds  and  to  conserve  the 
moisture. 

The  ground  may  be  prepared  thoroughly  after  winter  wheat 
or  oats  have  been  harvested,  and  if  there  has  been  sufficient 
summer  rainfall  to  supply  moisture,  alfalfa  may  be  seeded 
and  get  a  good  start  without  the  loss  of  a  season's  crop. 

Inoculation.  When  alfalfa  is  sown  for  the  first  time  in  a 
field,  inoculation  is  necessary  to  establish  a  permanent  crop. 
The  alfalfa  plant  will  not  get  enough  nitrogen  from  poor  soil 
to  insure  successful  growth  without  the  aid  of  the  bacteria 
which  are  able  to  utilize  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air.  These 


44  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

bacteria  must  be  supplied  if  they  are  not  present.  This  is 
best  done  by  scattering  over  the  seed-bed  just  before  or  after 
seeding  about  half  a  wagonload  per  acre  of  natural,  well 
infected  soil,  collected  where  tubercles  containing  the  bacteria 
are  found  in  abundance  upon  the  roots  of  alfalfa  or  sweet 
clover  plants.  This  infected  soil  should  be  immediately  har- 
rowed in  with  the  alfalfa  seed.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
infected  soil  is  not  left  exposed  too  long  to  bright  sunlight, 
because  sunlight  destroys  the  bacteria.  The  glue  method 
of  inoculation  is  also  practical.  (See  4  below.) 


FIG.   6.     HARVESTING  ALFALFA 

Cutting  alfalfa.  Alfalfa  should  be  cut  the  first  season 
whenever  it  seems  to  stop  vigorous  growth.  In  no  case  should 
any  weeds  be  allowed  to  develop  seeds,  even  if  the  alfalfa 
must  be  clipped  and  left  to  lie  on  the  ground.  The  crop  may 
be  cut  every  five  or  six  weeks.  The  rule  commonly  followed 
is  to  cut  alfalfa  when  the  new  shoots  from  the  crown  are 
about  one  inch  long.  In  the  fall  it  should  not  be  cut  very 
late  because  of  danger  from  winter  killing.  The  practice  of 


ALFALFA  45 

cultivating  alfalfa  after  early  season  cuttings  is  recom- 
mended by  some  successful  growers.  The  knives  should  not 
be  set  too  slanting  to  endanger  cutting  oft2  the  crowns  of  the 
plants.  Sometimes  a  spring  tooth  harrow  is  used.  A  corru- 
gated roller  following  the  cultivating  will  help  loosen  the 
soil  and  make  an  effective  soil  mulch. 

Alfalfa  hay  is  cured  and  harvested  in  about  the  same  man- 
ner as  red  clover.  It  must  not  be  allowed  to  lie  in  the  swath 
to  cure  until  the  leaves,  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  hay, 
are  likely  to  be  broken  off  and  lost  in  the  handling. 

The  partly  cured  hay  is  put  in  small  haycocks  and  cov- 
ered with  haycaps  for  protection  against  the  rain.  These 
caps  are  made  of  canvas  about  forty  inches  square  and  held 
in  place  by  balls  of  cement,  each  carrying  a  wire  hook.  It 
should  remain  in  these  haycocks  until  well  cured;  usually 
from  two  to  four  days  are  necessary. 

SUMMARY  OF  DIRECTIONS  FOR  GROWING  ALFALFA 

1.  Select  a  deep,  well  drained,  fertile  soil,  as  free  as  pos- 
sible from  weeds. 

2.  Before  attempting  to  grow  alfalfa  it  is  well  to  grow 
a  tilled  crop  a  year  or  two  previous  to  seeding  the  alfalfa. 

3.  Prepare  the  seed-bed  thoroughly ;  an  ideal  onion  tilth 
is  best. 

4.  Inoculate  the  land  with  from  100  to  300  pounds  per 
acre  of  infected  soil.    If  care  is  taken  to  prevent  the  alfalfa 
seed  from  gluing  together,  the  glue  method  of  inoculation 
may  be  used.    Moisten  the  seed  with  a  10  per  cent  solution  of 
glue  (six  ounces  of  furniture  glue  to  one  gallon  of  water)  and 
immediately  sift  over  them  sufficient  dry,  pulverized,  infected 


46  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

soil  to  absorb  all  of  the  moisture,  thus  furnishing  a  coating 
of  infected  soil  for  every  seed. 

5.  Apply  at  the   outset,    on   worn   soils   especially,   400 
pounds  per  acre  of  some  good  carrier  of  phosphorus,  and  if 
the  land  lacks  organic  matter  apply  manure  liberally. 

6.  Apply  from  two  to  five  tons  of  ground  limestone  per 
acre  to  the  soil  the  previous  fall  or  early  in  the  spring  before 
seeding. 

7.  Seed  the  ground  with  a  nurse  crop  of  oats  or  barley  in 
April,  or  sow  alone  on  ground  that  has  been  thoroughly  pre- 
pared between  the  fifteenth  of  July  and  the  fifteenth  of  August 
with  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed,  and  cover  lightly  with 
a  smoothing  harrow  or  weeder. 

8.  Koll   or  firm  the   ground  with   a  plank   drag   after 
planting. 

9.  Avoid  clipping  or  pasturing  after  the  summer  seeding. 

10.  Cultivating  the  ground  after  the  cuttings  of  alfalfa 
destroys   weeds,  loosens  the   ground,   and   encourages  the 
growth.    After  five  years  the  alfalfa  field  may  be  plowed  up 
and  included  in  a  crop  rotation,  beginning  with  corn. 


NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  have  there  been  so  many  failures  in  trying  to 
grow  alfalfa  in  this  country? 

2.  Why  is  alfalfa  a  good  forage  crop  ? 

3.  Show  statements  explaining  the  probable  costs  and  prof- 
its in  growing  an  acre  of  alfalfa. 

4.  Name  the  requirements  for  growing  alfalfa  in  the  order 
of  their  importance. 

5.  Compare  alfalfa  and  red  clover  as  to  habits  of  growth, 
culture  requirements,  feeding  value,  and  place  in  crop  rota- 
tion. 


ALFALFA  47 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Field  study  of  alfalfa.    Location  visited 

Date If  possible,  visit  an  alfalfa  field, 

observe  the  following  points,  and  write  a  description  of  each 
point  from  the  field  study : 

1.  Number  of  plants  per  square  foot.    Average  five. 

2.  Height  of  plant.    Average  ten. 

3.  Number  branches  per  stem.    Average  five. 

4.  Number  shoots  per  crown.    Average  five. 

5.  Diameter  of  taproot  at  crown  base. 

6.  General  appearance  of  field  as  to  thrift  and  color. 

7.  Note  the  strong  taproot  with  branches. 

8.  Note  number  and  position  of  lateral  stem  buds. 

9.  Select  as  large  a  plant  as  possible,  and  carefully  dig 
-  away  the  soil,  removing  the  plant  with  the  taproot 

and  its  branches.    Sketch. 

10.  Note  the  nodules  and  their  position. 

11.  Remove  a  few  of  the  nodules  and  preserve  them  for 
further  examination. 

12.  General  description  of  leafy  portion. 

2.  Growing  a  plot  of  alfalfa.    If  this  study  is  made  at  the 
proper  season,  one  practical  exercise  on  alfalfa  should  be 
made  by  growing  at  least  one-tenth  of  an  acre  on  the  school 
grounds.    Prepare  the  ground,  and  follow  carefully  all  direc- 
tions given  in  the  discussions  above  in  making  this  demonstra- 
tion plot  of  alfalfa, 

3.  Examination  of  alfalfa  seed  for  purity. 

(a)  Examine  the  seeds,  become  familiar  with  their  form 
and  size.    Sketch  a  few  seeds. 

(b)  Count  out  one  hundred  seeds  from  the  sample  in 
hand.    Separate  from  this  lot  all  weed  seeds  and  estimate  the 
per  cent  of  purity. 


48  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

At  the  current  price  of  alfalfa,  what  would  a  bushel  of 
pure  seed  cost?  How  much  would  you  have  to  buy  of  the 
quality  you  have  just  examined  to  get  a  bushel  of  pure  seed  ? 

(c)  List  the  names  of  the  weed  seeds  you  find  in  the 
sample  of  alfalfa  seed. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Our  most  important  crop.  The  plants  that  grow  in  our 
meadows  and  pastures  constitute  our  most  valuable  agricul- 
tural crop.  The  grasses  and  the  legumes  feed  both  our  ani- 
mals and  our  economic  plants,  as  we  shall  learn  later  in  our 
study,  and  the  meadows  and  the  pastures  contribute  no  small 
part  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape  in  the  open  country. 

Forage  crops.  All  such  food  for  animals  as  grass,  hay, 
pastures,  etc.,  are  known  as  forage  crops.  Fodder  is  the  for- 
age dried  and  cured.  Green  fodder  is  forage  cut  and  used 
before  it  ripens.  Silage  is  chopped  green  forage  stored  in  a 
silo.  Stover  is  cornstalks  from  which  the  ears  are  removed. 
A  soiling  crop  is  one  which  is  cut  and  fed  green  to  animals. 
There  are  about  fifty  forage  crops,  classified  as  follows: 

1.  Perennials — Timothy,  red-top,  blue-grass,  orchard  grass, 
etc. 

2.  Legumes — Alfalfa,  clovers,  peas,  beans,  vetches,  etc. 

3.  Annual  forage  plants — Oats,  millet,  Sudan  grass,  kaf- 
fir  corn,  corn,  etc. 

Meadows  are  fields  used  for  growing  forage  plants  to  be 
cut  for  hay.  Pastures  are  fields  used  for  grazing  purposes. 
Permanent  pastures  are  devoted  to  perennial  grasses. 

Hay.  The  hay  crop  of  the  United  States  is  exceeded  in 

49 


50  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

value  by  only  one  other  crop ;  namely,  corn.  Almost  all  of 
our  hay  is  made  from  such  plants  as  timothy,  clover,  alfalfa, 
cow-peas,  and  millet.  The  pasture  grasses  are  blue-grass,  buf- 
falo grass,  red-top,  and  clovers.  Of  the  thousands  of  species 
of  grasses  only  about  tAventy-six  are  cultivated,  and  only  nine 
are  considered  as  important  farm  crops.  In  the  order  of  their 
importance  the  meadow  grasses  are  :  timothy,  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  Bermuda  grass,  orchard  grass,  red-top,  Kussian  brome, 
meadow  fescue,  tall  meadow  oat  grass,  and  meadow  foxtail. 
The  total  yield  of  timothy  in  this  country  is  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  hay  crop.  The  hay  is  palatable,  easy  to  cure 
and  keep,  and  is  standard,  on  all  the  world  markets.  For 
these  reasons  timothy  continues  to  be  the  leading  hay  crop 
of  the  country.  These  facts,  however,  do  not  justify  the 
encouragement  of  the  production  of  timothy  when  we  have 
better  hay  crops  available  both  from  the  standpoint  of  ani- 
mal feeding  and  soil  fertility.  Combinations  of  grasses  and 
perennial  legumes  are  preferable  to  any  single  grass  for  hay 
making  or  for  pastures.  For  pastures,  those  maturing  at 
different  periods  are  grown;  for  meadows,  those  maturing 
at  the  same  time  are  necessary. 

Seeding  for  hay  and  pastures.  In  the  hay-producing 
regions  of  the  United  States  a  mixture  of  timothy  and  red 
clover  is  the  combination  used.  From  four  to  six  pounds  of 
seed  of  each  are  usually  sown  to  the  acre  in  starting  a  meadow. 
The  first  year  the  hay  is  a  mixture  of  the  two.  After  the 
second  year  the  stand  is  nearly  pure  timothy.  The  grass 
seed  is  usually  sown  in  the  fall  either  with  or  without  a  nurse 
crop.  The  clover  is  usually  sown  the  following  spring.  Ken- 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  51 

tucky  blue-grass  is  the  most  highly  esteemed  pasture  grass 
in  America.  Blue-grass  and  white  clover  will  soon  take  pos- 
session of  most  permanent  pastures;  therefore  there  is  little 
need  of  sowing  any  other  seed  for  pastures. 

Renewing  meadows  and  pastures.  When  meadows  and 
pastures  become  very  weedy,  plowing  and  re-seeding  is  the 
only  effective  way  to  renew  them.  A  crop  of  corn  and  oats 
may  be  grown  in  the  meantime  on  the  land.  Grass  of  old 
meadows  and  pastures  may  be  revived  by  liberal  top-dressings 
of  barnyard  manure  in  August  or  September.  Persistent  cut- 
ting when  weeds  are  in  blossom  is  the  only  effective  way  of 
holding  them  in  check  and  thus  keeping  the  pastures  clean. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  nine  grasses  and  seven  legumes  used  as  forage 
crops.     Define  grass  and  legume. 

2.  Where  are  the  great  pasture  regions  of  the  world? 

3.  How  does  the  hay  crop  compare  in  value  with  other 
farm  crops? 

4.  How  do  grasses  reproduce? 

5.  In  what  stage  of  development  do  the  farmers  of  your 
community  cut  the  timothy  hay  ? 

6.  How  would  you  start  a  good  meadow?     A  good  pas- 
ture? 

7.  Ought  we  to  grow  more  or  less  timothy  hay  in  the  inter- 
ests of  live-stock  farming  and  permanent  soil  fertility  ?  Why  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Identification  studies  of  forage  crops.  Either  in  the 
field  or  in  the  laboratory,  spend  the  period  in  examining 


52  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  grasses  and  legumes  usually  grown  in  meadows  and  pas- 
tures. List  the  common  names;  state  whether  perennial,  or 
annual,  grass  or  legume;  method  of  propagation;  uses  for 
which  grown;  and  other  most  important  characteristics. 

2.    Visit  a  meadow  or  a  pasture  and  write  a  critical  article 
about  it,  noting  such  points  as — 

(1)  Soil  condition. 

(2)  The  plants  grown. 

(3)  The  cleanliness  of  the  field  as  to  weeds,  brush,  etc. 

(4)  Improvements  needed. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CORN  . 

"  The  rose  may  bloom  for  England, 

The  lily  for  France  unfold; 
Ireland  may  honor  the  shamrock, 

Scotland  the  thistle  bold; 
But  the  shield  of  the  great  Republic, 

The  glory  of  the  West, 
Shall  bear  a  stalk  of  tasseled  corn, 

Of  all  our  wealth  the  best. 
The  arbutus  and  the  golden-rod 

The  heart  of  the  North  may  cheer, 
And  the  mountain  laurel  for  Maryland 

Its  royal  clusters  may  rear, 
And  the  jasmine  and  magnolia 

The  crest  of  the  South  adorn, 
But  the  wide  Republic's  emblem 

Is  the  bounteous  golden  corn." 

— Edna  Procter. 

I.     CORN,  THE  GREAT  AMERICAN  CEREAL 

Indian  corn.  No  one  knows  the  entire  history  of  Indian 
corn,  whose  special  name  is  given  as  maize.  The  name  itself 
contains  a  bit  of  history.  Columbus  found  a  strange  plant 
on  the  Island  of  Hayti,  which  the  natives  called  "mahiz, " 
and  from  this  we  have  the  name  maize.  Botanists  have  called 
the  plant  Zea  mays,  the  second  or  specific  name  being  a  modi- 
fication of  the  old  Indian  name. 

The  early  explorers  of  America  found  the  new  corn  in 

53 


54  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  temperate  regions  of  both  Americas.  We  are  particularly 
interested  in  the  history  of  corn  after  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica because  of  its  importance  as  a  food  crop  to  the  early 
colonists.  John  Fiske,  in  his  history  of  the  discovery  of 
America,  declares  that  Indian  corn  was  of  "  incalculable 
advantage  to  the  English  settlers  of  New  England,  who  would 
have  found  it  much  harder  to  gain  a  secure  foothold  upon 
the  soil  if  they  had  had  to  begin  by  preparing  it  for  wheat 
and  rye  without  the  aid  of  the  beautiful  and  beneficent 
American  plant." 

Importance  of  the  corn  crop.  It  is  not  easy  to  appreciate 
the  importance  of  corn  in  the  agriculture  of  the  United 
States.  Most  people  are  aware  of  the  fact  that  corn  is  our 
principal  grain  crop.  Many  do  not  know  how  important 
it  is  in  comparison  with  other  grain  crops.  The  following 
table,  compiled  from  the  estimates  of  the  Bureau  of  Sta- 
tistics of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  will 
furnish  a  basis  for  some  interesting  and  instructive  com- 
parisons of  the  relative  importance  cf  a  number  of  the  crops 
for  the  year  1910: 


Acreage 

Wheat  49,205,000 

Oats  35,288,000 

Barley 7,257,000 

Rye    2,028,000 

Rice 722,800 

Buckwheat 826,000 

Potatoes   3,591,000 


Production  Value,  Dec.  1 

695,443,000  $  621,443,000 

1,126,765,000  384,716,000 

162,227,000  93,785,000 

33,039,000  23,840,000 

24,510,000  16,624,000 

17,239,000  11,321,000 

338,811,000  187,985,000 


Total   98,917,800        2,398,039,000        $1,339,714,000 

Corn    114,002,000        3,125,713,000          1,523,968,000 


CORN  55 

Thus  it  appears  that  in  acreage,  production,  and  value, 
on  December  1  the  corn  crop  of  1910  was  greater  than  all  of 
the  other  cereal  grains,  including  also  buckwheat  and 
potatoes. 

II.     TYPES  OF  CORN 

Dent  and  flint.  In  speaking  of  .the  several  types  and 
varieties  of  corn,  most  of  us  use  the  terms  rather  loosely. 
Shoesmith  in  his  ''Study  of  Corn"  describes  six  types:  the 
dent,  the  flint,  soft  corn,  pod  corn,  sweet  corn,  and  popcorn. 
The  types  with  which  farmers  of  the  corn  belt  have  most  to 
deal  are  the  dent  and  the  flint  corn.  There  are  many  varie- 
ties of  both  dent  and  flint  types.  The  difference  in  appear- 
ance of  the  several  types  of  corn  is  due  in  part  to  differ- 
ences in  structure,  and  in  part  to  differences  in  composition. 
In  the  dent  type  the  soft  endosperm  appears  white  and  starchy 
at  the  center  and  near  the  crown  of  the  kernel.  As  the  grain 
ripens  this  soft  endosperm  shrinks  more  rapidly  than  the 
horny  endosperm  which  is  located  chiefly  at  the  edges  of  the 
kernel,  and  the  result  is  the  folded  or  wrinkled  appearance 
of  the  tops  of  the  grains  of  dent  corn.  In  the  flint  corn  the 
soft  endosperm  in  the  center  of  the  grain  is  surrounded  by 
the  horny  endosperm,  so  that  the  ripening  grain  shrinks 
almost  uniformly,  leaving  a  smooth,  shining  surface. 

Varieties.  Some  standard  varieties  in  the  corn  belt  are : 
Boone  County  White,  Funk's  Yellow  Dent,  Learning,  Minne- 
sota No.  13,  Reid's  Yellow  Dent,  Silver  Mine,  Silver  King 
(Wisconsin  No.  7),  and  Johnson  County  White.  Descrip- 
tions of  these  and  other  varieties  are  fully  given  in  Shoe- 


56 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


smith's    " Study    of    Corn,"    and    Bowman    and    Crossley, 
"Corn." 


THE   SEVEN   SPECIES   OF  CORN 


POP    •   FLINT  ^m    DENT    ^M    SOfiLT    |  |  SWEET  ^H    POD 
FIG.    7.      SEVEN   SPECIES   OF  CORN 

III.    LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT 

The  life  cycle.  Every  living  thing  has  a  life  history — a 
beginning,  a  growing,  possibly  a  reproduction,  and  a  death. 
So  it  is  Avith  the  corn  plant.  We  may  begin  at  any  place  in 
a  cycle,  but  in  case  of  the  corn  we  shall  begin  with  the  seed. 
The  young  corn  plant  is  already  well  started  in  the  seed.  It 
has  a  stem  and  leaf-end  embedded  in  a  cotyledon  containing 
food  for  the  young  plant,  as  soon  as  conditions  are  right 
for  it  to  continue  its  growth.  These  conditions  are  right 
when  the  kernel  of  corn  is  planted  in  the  soil.  Here 
the  moisture,  heat,  and  air  cause  the  young  plant  in  the 
cotyledon  to  begin  to  grow.  This  growth  consists  in  putting 
out  roots  into  the  soil,  pushing  up  a  roll  of  leaves  into  the 


CORN  57 

light  and  air,  and  using  up  the  food  in  the  kernel.  When 
the  roots  are  established  in  the  soil  and  the  leaves  are  unfolded 
in  the  air,  then  the  plant  begins  to  feed  upon  the  mineral 
food  elements  in  solution  in  the  soil  and  the  carbon  dioxide 
gas  of  the  air,  and  to  combine  these  food  elements  into  com- 
pounds to  be  assimilated  into  the  growing  roots,  stems,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  grain  during  the  summer.  At  the  tip  of  the  corn- 
stalk the  tassel  containing  millions  of  pollen  spores  develops, 
and  on  the  side  of  the  stalk  the  ear  develops,  each  kernel  of 
which  sends  out  a  long  silk  to  the  end  of  the  husks,  where 
they  appear  in  a  beautiful  yellow  mass.  The  pollen  must 
fall  upon  the  silk,  one  spore  upon  each  silk,  where  it  grows 
a  long  tube  reaching  down  the  silk  to  the  corn  kernel  at  the 
cob.  The  kernel  is  then  fertilized,  the  young  corn  plant 
begins  to  grow  in  the  kernel,  and  continues  to  grow  until  the 
corn  is  matured.  The  old  corn  plant  then  dies,  and  all  that 
is  left  alive  is  the  germs  or  new  corn  plants  embedded  in 
each  kernel  of  the  ripened  ear  of  corn,  ready  to  germinate 
and  continue  the  life  history  another  year  as  described  above. 

IV.     THE  CORN  PLANT 

Corn — A  grass.  All  of  the  cereal  grains  except  buckwheat 
belong  to  the  family  of  grasses.  Corn  is  a  very  wonderful 
grass.  On  the  tenth  of  May,  or  even  two  weeks  later,  the 
corn  plant  is  snugly  folded  within  the  kernel.  A  week  or  two 
after  being  planted,  the  young  shoot  pushes  its  tip  out  of  the 
ground  and  begins  to  be  a  real  plant — a  growing  thing  with 


58  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

roots  in  the  ground  and  green  leaves  spreading  out  in  the 
air.  In  another  hundred  days,  or  even  less,  the  corn  may 
be  in  the  shock.  "What  has  happened  meanwhile? 

Corn  roots.  First,  the  developing  corn  plant  had  to  ex- 
tend its  root  system  deep  and  wide  in  the  ground.  It  has 
been  shown  that  in  thirty  days  after  planting  the  roots  of 
ccrn  plants  in  adjacent  rows  meet  and  interlace.  They  fill 
the  whole  surface  of  the  cornfield  with  a  network  of  roots, 
and  in  many  cases  these  roots  extend  several  feet  downward. 
While  the  roots'  are  reaching  everywhere  in  the  surface  soil, 
the  stalks  are  reaching  upward  and  spreading  out  their  broad 
blades  to  the  sun  and  air. 

Leaves  and  blossoms.  The  corn  plant  does  more  than 
grow  tall  and  strong;  it  throws  out  brace  roots  enabling  it 
to  resist  the  winds.  It  produces  broad  leaves  in  such  a  way 
that  the  wind  may  bend  them  and  toss  them  with  little  dan- 
ger of  breaking  them;  for  the  leaves  are  many,  broad,  and 
long,  in  order  to  give  the  corn  plant  enough  feeding  surface 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  air.  The  corn  plant  has  a  wonderful 
contrivance  for  producing  its  fruit,  as  explained  in  a  former 
paragraph.  Silk  and  tassel  are  the  flowers  of  the  corn  plant. 
Every  future  grain  on  the  ear  is  at  the  lower  end  of  a  long 
thread  of  silk,  but  the  grain  can  not  develop  until  a  particle 
of  pollen  from  some  tassel  falls  upon  its  tip  and  grows  down 
the  silk  to  fertilize  the  seed. 

During  its  short  growing  season  the  corn  plant  may  grow 
to  a  height  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  and  produce  an  ear  or 
more  of  corn.  A  good  ear  of  corn  may  contain  a  thousand 
or  more  kernels. 


CORN  59 

V.    PLACE  OF  CORN  IN  CROP  ROTATION 

Reasons  for  rotation.  At  the  basis  of  all  successful  farm- 
ing is  an  intelligent  practice  of  crop  rotation.  Early  in  our 
study  of  corn,  therefore,  it  is  well  to  learn  its  place  in  sys- 
tems of  crop  rotation. 

A  few  of  the  more  particular  reasons  for  the  rotation  of 
crops  are  as  follows: 

1.  Different  crops  make  different  demands  upon  the  soil. 
The  grain  crops  are  able  to  use  a  large  part  of  the  available 
phosphorus  and  potassium  of  the  soil,  but  less  of  its  nitro- 
gen ;  therefore  it  is  well  to  follow  the  grains  with  crops  which 
use  nitrogen  more  extensively  and  do  not  draw  much  upon  the 
supply  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  in  the  soil. 

2.  Root  systems  differ.     The  small  grains  are  shallow- 
rooted,  and  so  utilize  the  fertility  from  the  surface  portion 
of  the  soil.     Other  crops,  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  send 
their  roots  deep  into  the  soil,  and  so  secure  plant-food  that 
is  out  of  reach  of  such  crops  as  wheat  and  oats.     Besides, 
clover,   alfalfa,   and   other   leguminous   crops  when   plowed 
under  leave  the  soil  richer  in  nitrogen  than  they  find  it. 
This   adds    greatly   to   the   productiveness    of   the   soil   for 
crops  of  a  different  character. 

3.  The  culture  of  one  crop  prepares  for  a  succeeding  crop 
of  a  particular  kind.    It  is  common  in  the  wheat  sections  to 
follow  corn  with  wheat  because  summer  cultivation  of  corn 
makes  it  possible  to  sow  the  wheat  without  plowing.    Besides, 
the  well  tilled  corn  ground  enables  the  wheat  to  get  a  good 
start  in  the  fall,  and  to  make  use  of  a  considerable  part  of 


60  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  plant-food  made  available  by  weathering  during  the  fall, 
winter,  and  spring. 

4.  Distribution  of  labor.  The  farmer  who  has  a  well 
planned  system  of  rotation  is  able  to  make  better  and  more 
continuous  use  of  his  own  time  and  of  the  labor  of  his  men 
and  teams. 

Corn  in  systems  of  rotation.  Eotation  of  crops  will  not 
in  any  sense  add  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  unless  in  the  rota- 
tion a  legume  crop  be  returned  to  the  soil,  and  then  nitrogen 
only  is  added.  In  connection  with  the  following  rotations, 
discussion  will  be  made  later  as  to  the  place  of  mineral  plant- 
foods  in  keeping  up  soil  fertility. 

For  a  system  of  rotation  in  live-stock  farming,  the  follow- 
lowing  scheme  is  advised: 

(1)  Wheat,  (2)  corn,  (3)  oats,  (4)  clover,  and  (5)  one- 
fifth  the  land  in  alfalfa  to  be  turned  into  the  rotation  after 
five  years,  and  another  one-fifth  seeded  to  alfalfa.  Sell  all 
grains,  seed,  and  alfalfa  hay,  and  return  the  rest  to  the  soil, 
using  limestone  and  rock  phosphate,  as  will  be  explained 
later. 

For  a  system  of  rotation  in  live-stock  farming,  the  follow- 
ing is  recommended: 

(1)  Corn,  (2)  corn,  (3)  oats,  (4)  clover,  and  (5)  alfalfa 
as  before.  Feed  all  the  crops  and  return  the  manure  to  the 
soil,  using  limestone  and  rock  phosphate. 

VL    FERTILIZING  CORN  GROUND 

Corn  not  a  poor  land  crop.  It  needs  to  be  repeated  again 
and  again  that  corn  can  not  be  profitably  raised  on  poor 


CORN  61 

land.  It  costs  as  much  to  plow  and  otherwise  prepare  poor 
land  fox*  a  crop  of  corn  as  it  does  to  prepare  good  land;  the 
subsequent  cultivation  is  just  as  expensive,  and  every  step 
in  the  progress  of  raising  a  poor  crop  from  poor  land  is  prac- 
tically as  costly  as  every  similar  step  in  producing  a  good 
crop  from  good  land.  Year  after  year  some  men  raise  corn 
on  land  so  poor  that  with  the  best  cultivation  only  a  small 
crop  can  be  raised,  and  this  always  without  profit.  Why  not 
bring  the  land  up  ta  the  condition  which  will  make  it  per- 
manently profitable? 

Soil  upon  which  corn  is  to  be  grown  often  responds  with 
increased  yields  through  crop  rotation,  the  growing  of  clover, 
even  though  it  be  removed,  and  the  use  of  complete  commer- 
cial fertilizers;  but  these  methods  do  not  provide  for  per- 
manent soil  fertility,  nor  do  they  always  return  a  profit  on 
the  investment, 

Permanent  soil  fertility.  There  is  a  difference  between 
adding  complete  commercial  fertilizer  even  though  increased 
crop  yields  result,  and  the  maintenance  of  permanent  soil 
fertility  at  a  lesser  annual  yield.  It  is  to  be  correctly  inferred 
from  the  above  that  the  use  of  complete  commercial  fertilizers 
does  not  maintain  permanent  soil  fertility,  and  no  one  can 
deny  that  we  should  kjeep  a  permanent  if  not  an  increasing 
soil  fertility. 

How  can  this  be  done  is  the  practical  question  to  raise. 
How  can  we  feed  the  corn  and  keep  the  soil  fertile?  To 
begin  at  the  beginniirg,  let  us  take  a  typical  Middle  West 
acre.  The  first  requirement  is  that  the  soil  should  be  well 
drained.  The  next  is  that  it  shall  have  plenty  of  active 


62  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

organic  matter.  If  clover  or  other  legumes  will  not  grow 
well  to  furnish  this  organic  matter,  perhaps  the  soil  is  sour 
and  needs  from  two  to  five  tons  of  ground  limestone  to  the 
acre.  The  next  important  requisite  is  the  nitrogen  content. 


.N 
FIG.   8.     POT  EXPERIMENTS  WITH   FERTILIZERS 

This  is  best  supplied  by  the  clovers  which  also  furnish  the 
organic  matter.  To  get  the  addition  of  nitrogen  the  clover 
must  be  plowed  .under.  The  next  requisite  in  most  soils  is 
the  maintenance  of  an  adequate  phosphorus  supply.  This  is 
most  economically  supplied  by  the  use  of  from  one  to  three 
tons  of  fine-ground  rock  phosphate  to  the  acre.  This  must 
always  be  applied,  however,  where  manure  or  other  organic 
matter  is  incorporated  in  the  soil ;  for  the  decaying  of  the  or- 
ganic matter  is  necessary  to  render  the  phosphorus  in  the 
rock  phosphate  available  for  plant-food.  This  decaying 


CORN  63 

organic  matter  also  renders  available  the  potassium  which 
in  normal  soils  is  usually  in  sufficient  abundance  to  supply 
standard  yields.  This  method  of  supplying  plant-food  to  the 
soil  in  connection  with  good  systems  of  crop  rotation  not 
only  increases  the  annual  yields  of  each  crop  in  the  rotation, 
but  leaves  the  soil  permanently  richer  in  plant-food  after 
the  single  applications,  as  stated  above,  and  after  four  or  five 
crops  of  the  rotation  have  been  produced. 

Plan  of  soil  treatment,  the  corn  series.  The  following  is 
the  general  plan  of  soil  treatment  for  ten  plots  in  each  of  a 
series  of  five  at  the  University  of  Illinois.  The  figures  show 
the  yields  of  corn  in  one  season: 

Corn  yield 

Plot  No.                Soil  treatment  bushels 

1  None    60 

2  Legume  (catch  crops  and  crop  residues) 60 

3  Manure  75 

4  Legume,   lime 65 

5  Manure,    lime 80 

6  Legume,  lime,  phosphorus 87 

7  Manure,  lime,  phosphorus 90 

8  Legume,  lime,  phosphorus,  potassium 90 

9  Manure,  lime,  phosphorus,  potassium 93 

*10      Legume    (manure,   lime,   phosphorus,   potassium, 

X5)    96 

VII.    PLOWING  FOR  CORN 

Time  of  plowing1.  The  time  of  plowing  for  corn  will 
usually  be  determined  by  the  convenience  of  the  farmer.  It 
is  a  pretty  well  established  fact  that  the  differences  in  yield 

*Five  times  the  amounts  used  in  (9)  were  applied. 


64  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

on  land  plowed  in  the  fall  and  similar  land  plowed  early  in 
the  spring  are  very  slight.  Sticky  clay  land  should  not  be 
plowed  when  it  is  so  wet  as  to  slip  off  the  mouldboard  in  a 
shiny  condition.  Land  that  is  likely  to  wash  because  of 
steepness  or  other  conditions  should  be  plowed  late  in  the 
winter  rather  than  early,  especially  if  it  is  protected  by  a 
cover-crop. 

Purpose  of  plowing.  One  purpose  of  plowing  is  to  enable 
the  land  to  store  water  and  retain  it.  Fall  plowing  pro- 
vides for  t«he  storage  of  water  in  the  soil ;  spring  plowing 
provides  for  its  retention.  But  to  this  qualification  there 
needs  to  be  added  the  statement  that  spring  plowing  is 
likely  to  hasten  the  evaporation  of  soil  moisture  unless  the 
plow  is  almost  immediately  followed  by  the  harrow.  "Water 
escapes  very  rapidly  from  the  surface  of  a  newly  plowed 
field.  Following  the  plow  with  the  harrow  while  the  surface 
soil  is  still  fresh  reduces  the  exposed  surface  and  so  retards 
evaporation.  It  also  retards  the  rise  of  the  water  from  the 
subsoil,  thus  retaining  it  where  the  plant  roots  will  need  it 
during  the  growing  season.  Plowing  also  increases  the  feed- 
ing area  of  the  corn  roots  and  helps  to  make  plant-food 
available. 

Depth  of  plowing.  The  depth  of  plowing  for  corn  will  be 
determined  largely  by  the  depth  of  previous  plowings.  It 
is  not  wise  to  turn  a  large  amount  of  raw  subsoil  up  to  the 
surface.  Usually  it  is  well  to  bring  a  small  amount  of  new 
soil  under  the  direct  influence  of  sun  and  rain,  thus  prepar- 
ing it  to  be  useful  to  subsequent  crops.  It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  it  is  the  mellowed  soil  that  contributes  most  to 


CORN  65 

the  growth  of  plants.  Other  influences  have  much  to  do 
with  determining  the  proper  depth  of  plowing  for  corn.  If 
the  ground  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  it  may  be  safe  to  plow  an 
inch  or  more  deeper  than  it  would  be  wise  to  plow  the  same 
ground  in  the  spring.  The  frosts  and  freezes  of  winter 
will  do  much  to  mellow  and  "tame"  the  soil  that  has  never 
been  exposed  to  the  more  active  weathering  influences. 

If  much  organic  matter  is  to  be  plowed  under,  it  should 
be  done  in  the  fall  in  order  to  give  it  time  to  decay  before 
the  spring  crop  is  planted. 

Preparation  of  see'd-bed.  Broadly  speaking,  everything 
done  to  the  soil  is  a  part  of  the  work  of  preparing  the  bed 
for  the  seed  to  be  sown  or  planted.  Plowing  and  fertilizing 
the  ground  are  steps  in  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  but 
we  must  be  concerned  here  with  the  immediate  preparation 
of  the  soil  to  receive-  the  seed.  The  use  of  the  harrow  after 
the  land  has  been  plowed  for  corn  is  the  simplest  method  of 
preparing  for"  planting.  On  land  plowed  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter,  it  is  advisable  to  go  over  the  ground  once  or  twice 
with  the  disk  or  cutaway  harrow  before  using  the  smooth- 
ing harrow;  and  in  many  cases  the  roller  or  wooden  drag 
may  follow  the  other  implements  with  profit.  A  modern  im- 
plement known  as  the  "culti-packer"  seems  to  make  ideal 
seed-bed  preparation,  since  it  both  packs  and  mulches  the 
soil.  Finally,  after  the  corn  has  been  planted,  further  prepa- 
ration of  the  soil  for  the  growing  corn  may  be  made  by  going 
over  it  once  or  twice  with  the  smoothing  harrow.  A  seed- 
bed in  perfect  condition  to  give  the  corn  plants  the  best  kind 
of  a  start  is  almost  equivalent  to  a  guarantee  of  a  good  crop. 


66  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

VIII.     TESTING  SEED  CORN 

Will  the  corn  grow?  The  farmer  plants  corn  in  the  belief 
that  it  will  grow.  Why  should  not  every  kernel  sprout 
and  produce  a  good  stalk  to  bear  a  good  ear?  Perhaps  it 
would  if  every  condition  were  made  right.  The  kernel  itself 
is  the  first  condition;  it  ought  to  be  in  perfect  growing  con- 
dition. The  corn  judge  or  the  man  selecting  seed  from  the 
crib  can  not  make  a  germinating  test;  he  must  be  guided 
by  appearances.  "What  are  some  of  the  evidences  that  corn 
will  probably  grow? 

If  the  ear  is  firm  in  the  hands,  the  kernels  tight  in  their 
places,  and  no  evidence  of  decay  seen  at  the  butt,  it  may 
be  supposed  that  the  corn  is  matured  and  well  developed. 
The  kernels  should  be  hard  arid  dry  and  without  dullness  of 
color;  they  should  be  of  a  fairly  large  and  regular  size,  with 
large  and  healthy  germs,  and  there  should  be  no  sign  of  mold. 
The  tips  of  vigorous  kernels  are  never  thin  and  shrunken. 
They  should  be  free  from  cracks  and  blisters,  and  tip  caps 
should  completely  cover  the  tips  of  the  shelled  kernels.  The 
corn  should  be  dry,  firm,  and  bright  colored.  A  damp 
moldy  cob  indicates  weakness  in  the  germ,  and  it  may  mean 
that  the  germs  are  already  dead. 

The  germination  test.  The  final  proof  that  the  corn  will 
grow  is  the  germination  test.  .  The  man  who  risks  a  large 
share  of  his  year's  labor  in  his  cornfield  ought  to  be  per- 
fectly sure  that  his  seed  is  good;  the  actual  sprouting  of  a 
few  grains  from  every  ear  will  make  him  perfectly  sure. 

The  test-box.     Make  a  box  of  any  convenient-  size.     A 


CORN  67 

board  .ten  or  twelve  inches  wide  and  two  feet  long  will  make 
the  bottom  of  a  very  serviceable  tester.  Make  a  tray  or 
shallow  box  by  using  two-inch-wide  boards  for  the  sides  and 
ends.  Fill  this  tray  with  sand,  leveling  it  with  a  yardstick, 
a  lath,  or  any  straight-edged  piece  of  wood  or  metal.  Lay 
it  off  in  squares  by  driving  a  row  of  carpet  tacks  into  each 
side  and  each  end  of  the  tray,  placing  these  tacks  an  inch 
and  a  half  or  two  inches  apart,  and  lacing  strong  twine  back 
and  forth  across  the  box  from  end  to  end  and  from  side  to 
side.  The  twine  will  thus  serve  as  a  fence  around  each  of 
the  squares,  which  will  be  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches 
across,  depending  on  the  distance  between  the  tacks,  and  will 
provide  space  to  test  five  kernels. 

This  is  the  tester  complete,  except  for  a  means  of  making 
and  keeping  a  record  of  each  ear  to  be  tested.  Begin  at  the 
right-hand  corner  of  the  box  and  number  the  long  way  of 
the  tester  from  1  to  the  number  representing  the  number  of 
squares  in  the  long  row.  If  the  squares  are  two  inches  in 
size  and  the  tester  is  four  feet  long,  the  last  number  will  be 
24.  Then  begin  at  the  corner  numbered  1,  and  number  the 
short  way  of  the  tester  with  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  If 
the  box  is  a  foot  wide  and  the  squares  two  inches  in  size, 
there  will  be  six  squares  in  a  short  row,  and  they  will  be 
numbered  from  A  to  F.  The  row  of  squares  numbered  1 
will  cross  the  row  marked  A  at  the  corner  of  the  tester. 
This  corner  is  marked  A  and  1 ;  in  brief,  it  is  Al.  The 
square  in  the  opposite  corner  is  F24.  Any  other  square  is 
definitely  located  by  letter  and  number.  Thus  provision  is 
made  for  testing  144  ears  of  corn.  If  the  squares  are  made 


68 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


FIG.  9.     AN  IDEAL  EAR 


one  inch  across,  there  will  be  576  in 
a  tester  a  foot  wide  and  four  feet 
long,  inside  measure. 

Made  according  to  these  direc- 
tions, the  tester  provides  a  simple 
means  of  keeping  a  record  of  every 
ear  tested.  Cut  a  piece  of  card- 
board into  squares  half  an  inch 
across.  Fasten  one  of  these  to  the 
butt  of  each  ear  of  corn  by  using  a 
common  pin.  The  pin  will  hold 
the  bit  of  cardboard,  providing  a 
place  for  the  number  to  correspond 
with  the  square  in  which  grains 
from  each  ear  are  to  be  planted. 

With  the  tester  in  a  place  where 
the  sand  can  be  properly  moistened 
with  water,  and  where  it  can  be 
kept  moist  and  also  warm  enough 
to  allow  the  corn  to  germinate  at  a 
summer  temperature,  begin  the 
work  by  taking  an  ear  to  be  tested 
in  square  Al ;  mark  the  tag  pinned 
on  the  butt  of  the  ear  (the  pin 
thrust  deep  into  the  pith)  Al; 
then,  with  a  pocket  knife  care- 
fully lift  five  kernels  from  differ- 
ent rows  in  different  parts  of  the 
ear. 


CORN  69 

Placing  the  kernels.  The  kernels  are  now  ready  for  plant- 
ing, which  may  be  done  by  pressing  them  germ  side  up  into 
the  sand  of  the  square  set  apart  for  them.  Mark  the  next 
ear  in  the  same  way,  A  2,  and  plant  five  grains  in  square  A2; 
following  this  method  until  five  grains  have  been  planted 
from  the  last  ear  in  (it  may  be)  square  Fll,  or  any  other 
square.  Now  you  are  prepared  to  wait  for  the  corn  to  come 
up.  The  marked  ears  are  laid  aside  where  they  can  not 
be  disturbed  by  mice,  rats,  or  meddlesome  persons ;  the  tester, 
with  every  grain  of  corn  pressed  just  below  the  surface  of 
the  sand,  is  sprinkled  with  water,  and  then  covered  with 
moistened  muslin  or  other  cloth  to  keep  the  test-box  from 
drying  so  fast. 

Results  of  test.  If  any  ear  of  corn  shows  less  than  perfect 
germination  in  every  kernel  taken,  that  ear  should  be  dis- 
carded. It  is  not  safe  to  plant  seed  from  an  ear  that  shows 
any  weak  or  dead  kernels.  Perhaps  the  simplest  and  most 
important  lesson  to  get  from  this  study  is  that  no  one  should 
plaint  corn  that  is  not  known  by  actual  and  careful  test  to 
be  in  perfect  germinating  condition.  If  seed  corn  has  to  be 
bought,  it  should  be  bought  in  the  ear  so  that  the  purchaser 
may  know  what  his  corn  is  and  may  test  it  for  himself. 

IX.     PLANTING  THE  CORN 

Time  to  plant.  Early  planting  is  generally  advised,  but 
corn  is  a  warm  weather  plant.  It  will  not  germinate  until 
the  soil  has  become  warmer  than  is  necessary  for  the  growth 
of  peas,  oats,  and  certain  other  hardy  plants. 


70  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Distance  in  planting.  The  distance  between  rows  is 
usually  a  matter  of  custom,  growing  out  of  local  experience. 
Forty-four  inches  is  a  common  distance.  If  the  corn  is 
planted  with  a  check-row  planter,  it  may  be  planted  forty- 
four  inches  each  way.  When  corn  is  drilled,  the  distance 
between  rows  is  sometimes  three  feet  and  six  inches.  When 
planted  in  hills,  and  the  seed  is  good,  three  kernels  to  the 
hill  will  produce  the  desired  number  of  stalks. 

Depth  of  planting.  The  depth  of  planting  should  depend 
on  the  season,  the  kind  of  soil,  and  its  condition.  If  the  corn 
is  planted  early  while  the  soil  is  comparatively  cold,  shallow 
planting  is  to  be  recommended.  When  the  soil  has  become 
warm  and  mellow,  deeper  planting  may  be  safely  done.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  corn  kernels  will  not  sprout  unless 
they  get  sufficient  moisture,  and  at  the  surface  of  a  dry  soil 
there  may  not  be  enough  moisture  to  cause-  prompt 
germination. 

X.     CULTIVATING  CORN 

Purposes  of  tillage.  Tillage  breaks  up  the  soil,  making 
possible  the  free  movement  of  air  and  moisture.  It  mellows 
and  pulverizes  the  soil,  thus  promoting  the  processes  that 
increase  the  availability  of  the  plant-food  materials;  it  pro- 
motes the  warming  of  the  earth,  and  destroys  weeds. 

First  cultivation  important.  This  first  cultivation  of  the 
corn  may  be  done  with  a  t\yo-horse,  double-shovel  cultivator. 
If  such  an  implement  is  used  it  should  be  supplied  with 
fenders  to  keep  the  young  plants  from  being  covered  or 


CORN  71 

broken  by  the  earth  thrown  against  them  by  the  rapidly  mov- 
ing shovels. 

The  importance  of  this  first  cultivation  can  hardly  be  over- 
emphasized. It  should  not  be  done  when  the  ground  is  too 
wet ;  it  should  not  be  put  off  until  the  weeds  begin  to  smother 
the  corn  plants.  Many  a  corn  crop  has  been  reduced  in  yield 
from  a  fourth  to  a  half  by  neglecting  to  use  the  right  imple- 
ment in  the  right  way  at  the  right  time. 

Every  man  ought  to  be  so  familiar  with  his  own  soil  and 
its  condition  that  he  can  judge  the  right  time  to  cultivate 
by  looking  at  it,  by  walking  over  it,  and  by  feeling  of  it 
with  his  fingers.  If  the  ground  is  too  wet,  there  is  danger 
that  serious  harm  will  be  done  by  the  cultivator;  if  it  is  al- 
lowed to  get  too  dry,  there  will  be  great  loss  of  moisture  due 
to  evaporation  and  the  growth  of  weeds. 

Shallow  cultivation.  Much  damage  is  done  to  corn  every 
year  by  too  deep  cultivation.  By  the  time  corn  is  a  foot 
high,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  give  it  deep  cultivation  with- 
out breaking  off  many  of  the  roots.  This  will  give  the  corn  a 
serious  set-back. 

"With  the  plowing  well  done  in  fall  or  winter  or  early 
spring;  with  thorough  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  by  the 
use  of  disk  or  cutaway,  and  smoothing  harrow  and  roller  or 
plank  drag;  with  one  deep  cultivation  well  and  carefully 
done ;  after  this  it  is  easy  to  do  the  work  that  will  ordinarily 
assure  a  good  crop  of  corn  on  fairly  rich  land.  The  subse- 
quent cultivation  should  be  shallow.  In  fact,  some  corn 
growers  advocate  merely  scraping  the  surface  of  the  ground 
to  destroy  weeds  and  provide  a  soil  mulch. 


72  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

The  soil  mulch.  By  the  use  of  the  right  kind  of  imple- 
ments and  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  tillage,  the  farmer 
keeps  the  soil  in  proper  condition  and  prevents  the  growth 
of  weeds.  If  a  hard  crust  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  by  the  dashing  rains  of  summer,  the  soil  water  rapidly 
comes  to  the  surface  and  is  evaporated  by  the  sun  and  wind. 
The  farmer  wants  to  have  this  water  escape  from  the  soil 
through  the  corn  plants,  giving  up  on  the  way  the  plant-food 
it  has  absorbed  out  of  the  soil.  He  therefore  breaks  up  the 
crust  of  earth  and  saves  the  moisture  for  the  corn  crop. 
The  moisture  from  the  deeper  soil  gathers  below  the  mulch 
about  the  roots  of  the  corn  where  it  can  be  utilized.  If 
weeds  are  allowed  to  grow,  they  will  be  sure  to  get  their 
share  of  this  moisture,  thus  robbing  the  corn. 

XI.    MATURING  OP  CORN 

Corn  should  mature.  To  be  reasonably  satisfactory  for 
general  use  corn  must  also  get  ripe.  We  want  the  corn  to 
use  the  entire  growing  and  ripening  season;  but  we  do  not 
want  it  to  be  of  a  kind  that  needs  two  weeks  more  of  grow- 
ing weather  than  our  climate  can  furnish.  We  want  corn 
that  will  mature. 

Large  ears  and  maturity.  The  common  disposition  of 
farmers  to  select  large  ears  has  had  a  tendency  to  produce 
a  strain  of  corn  requiring  a  long  season — a  season  longer 
than  can  be  depended  upon  year  after  year.  So  it  often 
happens  that,  with  a  late  spring  or  an  early  fall,  or  both, 
a  large  share  of  the  corn  does  not  get  ripe.  When  cut  before 


CORN  73 

it  matures,  it  is  so  full  of  water  that  it  can  not  dry  out 
before  freezing  weather.  The  result  is  that  the  frost  kills 
or  weakens  the  germs  of  the  unripe  corn,  making  it  unfit 
for  seed.  Another  effect  of  the  imperfect  ripening  is  seen 
in  the  many  cribs  of  moldy  corn.  Whenever  there  is  a  large 
proportion  of  soft  corn,  there  is  great  danger  that  there 
will  be  heating  and  subsequent  molding  in  the  crib. 

Where  to  get  seed.  The  fact  needs  frequent  emphasis 
that  it  is  not  wise  to  bring  seed  corn  from  a  distance.  The 
corn  plant  has  a  tendency  to  adapt  itself  to  the  length  of  the 
season;  but  this  adaptation  does  not  come  about  in  a  single 
season.  The  best  practice  is  to  plant  home-grown  seed  from 
soil  similar  to  the  soil  in  which  it  is  to  be  planted.  If  good 
seed  can  not  be  had  from  near  home,,  the  grower  will  do 
well  to  send  for  seed  grown  where  the  season  is  shorter 
rather  than  longer  than  his  own. 

XII.    SELECTING  SEED  CORN  IN  THE  FIELD 

Value  of  good  seed.  The  importance  of  selecting  good 
seed  corn  and  taking  good  care  of  it  cannot  be  over-estimated. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  well-bred  and  carefully  se- 
lected seed  corn,  of  a  type  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate  where 
it  is  to  be  used,  will  produce  from  10  to  50  per  cent  more 
corn  per  acre.  Rich  soil  and  good  culture  are  important  fac- 
tors in  producing  a  large  crop  of  corn,  but  good  seed  will 
add  considerably  to  the  yield. 

Field  selection.  To  get  the  best  seed  corn  it  should  be 
selected  in  the  field  after  it  has  matured,  and  while  the  char- 


74  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

acter  of  the  parent  stalk  can  be  seen.  It  is  a  well  known 
law  of  life  that  "Like  begets  like,"  and,  in  the  case  of  corn, 
each  kernel  selected  for  seed  will  tend  to  produce  a  stalk  and 
ear  like  the  one  from  which  it  came.  Now  there  are  certain 
desirable  characteristics  of  the  stalk  of  corn  which  can  not 
be  seen  except  by  careful  field  selection. 

There  should  be  a  large  leaf  growth.  The  stalk  should 
be  strong  and  vigorous,  medium  size,  strong  at  the  base  with 
good  brace  roots  and  tapering  gradually  to  the  tassel.  It 
should  stand  up  well  and  bear  its  ear  at  a  convenient  height 
for  husking.  The  shank  of  the  ear  should  be  of  medium 
length,  allowing  the  ear  to  turn  down  slightly.  A  short  shank 
holds  the  ear  too  erect.  Ears  on  long  shanks  or  too  high  on 
the.  stalk  are  more  likely  to  pull  down  the  stalk  in  a  wind 
storm,  besides  being  inconvenient  to  husk.  The  ears  selected 
should  be  well  developed,  with  straight  rows  of  uniform  sized 
kernels.  Ears  should  be  selected  and  husked  before  the  early 
frost  injures  them  for .  seed.  Expert  plant  breeders  have 
selected  seed  corn  for  various  characteristics  and  developed 
new  and  different  strains  from  the  same  seed.  This  shows 
that  it  is  possible  to  select  seed  and  thus  improve  the  strain 
from  the  old  stock. 

XIII.     JUDGING  AND  SCORING  CORN 

Corn  judging.  The  object  of  corn  judging  is  to  determine 
the  corn  of  highest  quality,  either  for  feeding  or  market, 
which  is,  consequently,  most  profitable  to  grow.  The  study 
of  the  desirable  characteristics  of  seed  corn  has  led  to  the 


CORN 


75 


formation  of  a  standard  scale  of  points  or  ' '  corn  score-card. ' ' 
By  the  use  of  the  score-card,  the  judge  or  student  can  keep 
in  mind  the  relative  merits  of  the  points  in  a  sample  of  corn, 
and  compare  the  ears  he  is  judging  with  the  ideal  standard. 


FIG.   10.     WINNER  IN  MANY  CONTESTS 

In  selecting  corn  for  seed  or  for  exhibition,  probably  the 
best  method  is  to  place  the  ears  from  a  bushel  of  selected 
corn  upon  a  table  with  the  butts  of  the  ears  toward  you. 
Select  the  most  nearly  perfect  ear  you  can  find,  one  which 


76  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

comes  the  nearest  to  the  ideal  type.  Then  select  other  ones 
resembling  the  first  one — ten  in  all. 

The  score-card.  The  score-card  is  a  device  to  help  the 
judge  or  student  to  make  intelligent  comparisons  of  sample 
ears  with  the  ideal  type.  The  characteristics  of  the  ear  are 
listed  and  the  perfect  grade  for  each  is  given.  The  student 
must  judge  how  nearly  the  sample  being  scored  compares 
to  the  perfect  grade  under  each  point.  In  judging  corn, 
ten  ears  usually  constitute  an  exhibit  sample.  It  is  desirable 
that  samples  be  laid  out  side  by  side  on  a  table  where  a 
good  light  may  be  had. 

For  practical  work  in  corn-scoring  the  teacher  should 
provide  score-cards  used  and  recommended  by  the  agricul- 
tural college  of  the  state  in  which  the  work  is  being  done.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  give  more  attention  and  study  to  scoring 
corn  than  to  its  production.  It  is  yield  we  want  rather  than 
fancy  ears,  and  this  characteristic  is  often  inherent  in  ears 
of  indifferent  appearance. 

XIV.     STORING  SEED  CORN 

Essentials  of  careful  storing.  The  proper  storing  of  seed 
corn  after  selection  is  perhaps  of  equal  importance  to  the 
matter  of  selection.  The  ears  should  be  taken  when  mature 
on  the  stalk  and  hung  or  laid  in  dry,  well  ventilated  places, 
and  kept  perfectly  dry  and  cool  until  planting  time  the  next 
season.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  seed  is  a  living 
thing  and  is  injured  by  freezing. 


CORN 


77 


Value  of  careful  storage.  The  Ohio  Extension  Bulletin 
reports  as  follows:  " Samples  of  seed  corn  were  taken  from 
over  100  different  farms  in  all  parts-  of  the  state,  and  germina- 
tion tests  made  of  the  corn  to  determine  its  vitality,  careful 
record  being  kept,  as  far  as  possible,  of  the  method  of  storing 
and  caring  for  seed  corn." 

The  following  table  will  give  the  results  as  shown  by  this 
preliminary  work: 


Number 
tested 

Taken  from  ordinary  crib...  40 
Stored  in  good  dry  place 
with  plenty  of  air  currents, 
but  no  artificial  heat,  as  on 
shelves,  in  cribs,  above 
wagon  sheds,  hung  by 

wires,  strings,  etc 62 

Stored  in  attics,  empty  rooms 
in  houses,  furnace  rooms, 
etc.  Some  artificial  heat 
furnished  but  not  always  a 
free  circulation  of  air..  11 


Range  of 
germi- 
nation— 
per  cent 
55-100 


72-100 


85-100 


Average 
germi- 
nation— 
per  cent 
85 


90.3 


93.3 


•  Vigor 
of  plants 
Poor 


Good 


Good 


It  was  also  shown  in  these  Ohio  experiments  that  seed 
corn  from  varieties  that  are  well  adapted  is  less  difficult  to 
care  for  than  that  from  large,  late-maturing  strains. 

"A  bushel  of  seed  corn  will  plant  seven  acres  which  at 
fifty  bushels  per  acre  should  yield  350  bushels.  It  will  be 
seen,  according  to  the  figures  shown  earlier  in  this  discussion, 
one  bushel  of  the  corn  which  had  been  well  cared  for  would 
produce  5  per  cent  more  stalks  than  the  seed  not  properly 


78 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


stored.  Not  taking  into  consideration  the  difference  in  the 
vigor  of  the  plants,  this  would  make  a  difference  of  seventeen 
and  one-half  bushels  in  favor  of  the  bushel  of  seed  that  had 
been  carefully  handled." 

Methods  of  storing  seed  corn.  There  are  many  methods 
of  storing  seed  corn,  but  in  all  cases  the  place  of  storing  must 
be  dry  and  well  ventilated.  It  should  never  be  put  in  boxes, 


.atmiiLt; 

j 


FIG.   11.     SEED  CORN  RACK 

barrels,  or  sacks.  The  attic,  or  an  empty  room  upstairs  in  the 
house,  if  it  is  not  too  warm  and  close,  is  a  good  place  for  stor- 
ing while  the  corn  is  still  moist.  The  barn  and  crib  are  suit- 
able places  for  storing  if  there  is  time  enough  for  the  ears  to 
become  thoroughly  dry  before  freezing  weather.  If  thor- 
oughly dry  and  surrounded  by  dry  atmosphere,  seed  corn  will 
stand  very  cold  weather. 

No  matter  where  stored,  it  should  be  either  hung  up  or 


CORN 


79 


placed  on  racks  made  of  narrow  strips  with  spaces  between 
them,  and  in  all  cases"  kept  out  of  reach  of  rats,  mice,  and 
chickens. 

XV.  SOME  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CORN 
The  corn  root-louse.  Corn  attacked  by  this  insect  becomes 
dwarfed,  the  leaves  turn  red  and  yellow,  and  there  is  general 
lack  of  vigor.  The  root-louse  is  a  small  insect,  bluish-green 
in  color,  oval  in  form,  with  two  short  slender  tubes  projecting 
from  the  back  part  of  the  abdomen.  The  root-lice  are  nearly 


FIG.  12.     CORN  ROOT-LOUSE 

always  accompanied  by  ants,  and  the  farmer  who  sees  the 
ants  about  the  roots  "of  his  corn  is  likely  to  lay  the  blame 
of  his  sickly  crop  to  them  rather  than  to  the  root-lice,  the  real 
pests.  The  ants,  however,  are  indirectly  responsible  for  the 
root-louse  injury,  as  they  care  for  the  eggs  of  the  louse  during 
the  winter,  and  bring  the  young  lice  to  the  roots  of  the  young 
smart-weeds  early  in  the  spring. 


80 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


About  the  first  of  May  the  second  generation  of  lice  ap- 
pears, and  the  little  brown  ants  transfer  them  to  the  roots 
of  the  young  corn  plants.  During  the  summer  the  lice  con- 
tinue breeding  with  great  rapidity,  all  the  while  sucking  the 
juice  from  the  young  roots  of  the  growing  corn.  About  the 
middle  of  September  the  last  brood  of  females  begin  to  lay 
eggs  for  the  winter.  These  females  are  usually  carried  by 
the  ants  to  their  nests,  where  the  eggs  are  laid. 

Rotation  of  crops,  proper  fertilization  of  the  soil,  deep 
fall  plowing,  or  early  spring  plowing,  followed  by  repeated 


FIG.   13.     THE   CHINCH  BUG 

deep  disking  to  destroy  the  ants'  nests,  are  some  of  the  suc- 
cessful methods  of  combating  the  corn  root-louse. 

The  chinch  bug.  The  great  arch  enemy  of  the  corn  crop 
is  the  chinch  bug.  This  insect  is  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
long,  and  does  its  work  of  injury  by  sucking  the  juice  from 
the  stalks  of  the  growing  corn,  completely  destroying  whole 
fields.  The  insect  goes  into  winter  quarters  as  an  adult  bug, 
and  there  remains  until  the  warm  weather  of  the  next  April 
or  May.  It  is  hidden  away  at  the  roots  of  various  grasses, 
and  in  accumulations  of  weeds,  leaves,  and  other  rubbish. 


CORN  81 

Many  bugs  may  be  destroyed  by  burning  such  rubbish  and 
grass.  The  bugs  that  live  through  the  winter  come  out  in 
the  spring  and  spread  over  the  country  on  the  wing,  settling 
in  fields  of  wheat,  early  oats,  or  other  grasses,  and  in  these 
lay  their  eggs  for  the  first  generation  of  the  year.  The  young 
hatching  from  these  eggs  injure  the  crop  in  which  they  find 
themselves.  Later,  at  wheat  harvest  time,  being  only  partly 
grown,  they  move  out  of  infested  wheat  fields  on  foot  into 
other  fields  of  grain,  especially  of  corn,  where,  if  the  season 
favors  them,  a  second  generation  will  be  bred  to  the  enor- 
mous injury  of  the  infested  crops. 

The  successful  combating  of  chinch  bugs  is  a  community 
affair.  Every  farmer  who  has  chinch  bugs  on  his  place  should 
clean  up  and  burn  up  all  trash  which  would  harbor  the  bug 
during  the  winter.  In  the  summer  the  farmers  of  the  com- 
munity should  all  co-operate  in  throwing  crude  oil  lines  about 
their  wheat  fields  to  catch  the  bugs  as  they  migrate  from 
the  wheat  to  the  corn. 

The  corn  ear-worm.  The  corn  ear-worm  injures  the  ears 
of  corn  and  is  a  serious  pest,  especially  to  sugar  corn.  In  the 
South  this  same  insect  is  known  as  the  cotton  boll-worm,  from 
its  habit  of  boring  into  the  boll  of  the  cotton. 

In  our  latitude  the  first  broods  of  the  moths  appear  in 
May  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  corn  or  other  food  plants. 
The  second  or  third  broods  lay  their  eggs  in  the  silks  or 
tassels  of  the  corn.  The  young  worms  hatch  in  three  or  four 
days,  and  begin  feeding  upon  the  silks  of  the  corn.  In  a 
few  days  they  get  into  the  tips  of  the  young  ears.  Each 
worm  may  feed  upon  several  ears,  and,  when  full  grown,  the 


82  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

worms  leave  the  ear  and  go  into  the  ground,  where  they 
make  little  cells  and  in  these  transform  to  pupae.  In  about 
two  weeks  the  next  brood  of  moths  appear.  There  are  two 
or  three  broods  in  a  year. 

The  pest  is  very  difficult  to  combat.  Since  the  pupae  of 
the  last  brood  hibernate  in  the  ground  during  the  winter, 
many  of  them  may  be  killed  by  deep,  late  fall  plowing.  The 
time  of  planting  should  be  taken  into  consideration;  since 
the  moths  prefer  to  lay  their  eggs  on  the  silk,  the  corn  which 
is  in  silk  when  the  moths  emerge  from  the  ground  will  be 
most  seriously  injured.  Early  planted  corn  is  less  liable  to 
injury  from  this  source. 

XVI.     CORN  PRODUCTS 

The  stalk.  Many  new  uses  have  lately  arisen  for  corn, 
in  addition  to  the  well  known  and  standard  purposes  this 
cereal  has  long  served.  Corn  pith  has  lately  been  utilized 
as  a  packing  for  battleships.  The  production  of  cellulose, 
high  explosives,  varnishes,  etc.,  are  recent  uses  of  pith,  and 
in  the  manufacture  the  outer  shell  and  leaves  of  the  stalk  are 
left  as  by-products.  These  are  finely  ground  up  and  put  on 
the  market  as  the  "New  Corn  Product, "  which  is  used  as 
a  stock  food.  The  crude  stalk  has  such  well  known  uses  as 
stock  food  in  fodder,  ensilage,  etc.  A  cheap  grade  of  papeT 
can  be  made  from  the  pulp  of  the  corn  stalk.  Denatured  alco- 
hol and  various  food  extracts  are  being  made  from  corn 
stalks. 

The  corn  kernel.    Besides  the  common  uses  of  the  kernel 


CORN 


83 


as  food  for  man  and  beast,  there  are  about  thirty  products 
made  from  it :  six  kinds  of  mixing  glucose,  used  by  refiners 
of  table  syrups,  brewers,  leather  manufacturers,  jelly  mak- 
ers, fruit  preservers,  and  apothecaries;  four  kinds  of  crystal 
glucose,  used  by  confectioners ;  two  kinds  of  grape  sugar,  used 
by  brewers  and  tanners;  pearl  starch,  used  by  paper  and 
cotton-mills ;  powdered  starch,  used  by  baking-powder  manu- 
facturers; florine,  used  by  flour  mixers;  dextrine,  used  by 
fine  fabric,  paper  box,  mucilage  and  glue  manufacturers; 


FIG.   14.     ANALYSIS  OF  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  CORN 

corn-oil,  used  by  table  oil  mixers,  lubricating  oil  mixers, 
manufacturers  of  fibre,  shade  cloth,  paint,  and  similar  indus- 
tries where  vegetable  oils  are  employed;  corn-oil  cakes,  used 
for  cattle  feeding  purposes;  rubber  substitute,  used  in  the 
place  of  crude  rubber;  corn  germs,  from  which  oil  and  cake 
are  made ;  British  gum,  a  starch  which  makes  a  very  adhesive 
medium ;  distilled  spirits,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  smoke- 


84  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

less  powder ;  alcohol  for  commercial  purposes ;  corn  down,  the 
brown  outer  coating  next  the  cob,  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  mattresses. 

The  cob.  Even  the  cob,  besides  the  emergency  use  as 
corks,  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  pipes,  and  as  a  fuel 
in  the  great  corn  belt.  The  ashes  of  cobs  are  easily  con- 
vertible into  a  commercial  potash. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  corn  sometimes  called  Indian  corn  or  maize? 

2.  How  does  corn  rank  in  acreage,  production,  and  value 
with  other  farm  crops  of  the  United  States? 

3.  The  corn  crop  for  the  last  five  years  in  the  United 
States  has  been  over  2.500,000,000  bushels  a  year.    How  much 
is  that  for  each  person  in  the  United  States? 

4.  How  much  corn  was  grown  in  the  state  last  year? 
What  was  the  average  yield  per  acre?     (See  the  Year  Book 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.     The 
school  may  obtain  a  copy  through  the  congressman  of  the 
district.) 

5.  What  are  the  parts  of  a  kernel  of  corn? 

6.  What  are  the  conditions  for  the  germination  of  seed 
corn? 

7.  Where  does  the  corn  plant  bear  its  blossoms? 

8.  A  plot  of  ground  at  the  University  of  Illinois  has  been 
in  corn  for  thirty-five  years.    The  yield  is  now  about  twenty- 
five  bushels  per  acre.    What  does  this  show? 

9.  What  do  the  farmers  in  your  locality  do  to  fertilize 
their  corn  ground? 

10.  In  a  system  of  crop  rotation,  including  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  and  clover,  a  farmer  desiring  to  establish  permanent 


CORN  85 

soil  improvement  applies  two  tons  of  ground  limestone  per 
acre  to  his  clover  field  in  the  fall,  and  a  ton  of  fine  ground 
rock  phosphate  in  the  spring,  before  turning  under  the  clover 
for  corn.  The  limestone  cost  $1.50  per  ton  and  the  rock 
phosphate  $7.50  per  ton.  His  corn  yield,  as  shown  by  check 
plots,  was  five  bushels  more  per  acre  the  first  season,  and 
twenty-five  bushels  more  the  fifth" season;  the  oats  increased 
twenty-five  bushels,  the  wheat  fourteen  bushels,  and  the  clover 
one  ton  per  acre.  Estimating  the  expense  of  applying  the 
limestone  and  rock  phosphate  at  50  cents  per  ton,  what  did 
he  gain  on  the  investment  at  the  prevailing  prices  of  grain 
and  hay? 

11.  A  farmer  turned  under  a  heavy  clover  crop  in  the 
spring  of  1913  and  planted  the  field  to  corn.    The  corn  ger- 
minated and  grew  well  for  a  few  weeks,  then  dried  up  and 
died.     Explain. 

12.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  germinating  test? 

13.  If  an  ear  of  corn  has  800  kernels  and  they  should 
all  be  planted  and  all  grow,  producing  ears  that  weighed 
12  ounces  each,  how  much  would  that  ear  of  corn  be  worth, 
estimating  its  value  from  the  yield  at  50  cents  a  bushel? 

14.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "tillage"?     Name 
six  values  of  tillage. 

15.  What  should  be  done  at  the  first  cultivation  of  corn? 
Why  is  this  cultivation  so  important? 

•  16.  Speak  of  the  value  of  shallow  cultivation  as  com- 
pared to  deep  cultivation  of  corn. 

17.  What  harm  results  from  weeds  in  the  corn? 

18.  Why  is  it  best  to  use  home-grown  seed? 

19.  Name  some  characteristics  of  the  parent  plant  that 
are  carried  by  the  seed  to  the  next  generation. 

20.  Why  is  it  best  to  select  seed  corn  in  the  field?    When 
should  this  be  done? 

21.  How  is  seed  corn  stored  and  cared  for  at  your  home? 


86  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

22.  Make  a  list  of  uses  to  which  you  have   seen  corn 
applied. 

23.  Why  is  corn  so  well  adapted  to  agricultural  opera- 
tions and  commercial  usage? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECT 

1.  Observation  study  of  a  corn  plant.    Bring  half  a  dozen 
stalks  of  corn  into  the  schoolroom  or,  better  still,  go  with  the 
class  to  a  field  of  standing  corn.     Observe  the  stalks  having 
roots,  leaves,  ears,  and  all  complete.     Make  notes  of  your 
observations  on  each  stalk,  noting  the  following  points: 

1.  Leafiness  of  stalk,  number  of  leaves. 

2.  Size  and  vigor  of  stalk — measure  exact  height. 

3.  Height  of  ear  from  ground. 

(a)  Length  of  ear.  angle  with  stalk,  and  length  of 
ear  shank. 

(b)  Husks,  abundant  or  scarce,  close  or  loose  fitting. 
.     (c)  Ear,  good  or  poor  type. 

4.  Are  brace  roots  present? 

5.  If  hills  of  corn  are  3  feet  6  inches  each  way,  how 
many  hills  to  the  acre? 

6.  If  each  hill  has  three  corn  stalks,  and  each  stalk  bears 
an  ear  weighing  12  ounces,  how  many  bushels  per 
acre  would  be  the  yield? 

2.  Field  selection  of  seed  corn.    Bring  several  stalks  of 
corn  to  the  schoolroom,  or  go  with  the  class  to  a  field.    Assign 
to  each  pupil  a  stalk  of  corn  and  have  him  write  a  criticism 
of  the  stalk  as  to  whether  it  is  suitable  from  which  to  select 
seed  corn  or  not.    Note  the  following  points : 

1.  Leafiness  of  stalk. 

2.  Size  and  vigor  of  stalk. 

3.  Eoot  support. 

4.  Height  of  ear. 


CORN  87 

5.  Length  of  shank. 

6.  Angle  of  ear  to  stalk. 

7.  General  type  of  ear. 

3.  Study  of  an  ear  of  corn.     (From  Nolan's  "One  Hun- 
dred Lessons  in  Agriculture.")     With  an  ear  of  corn  on  the 
desk  before  each  pupil,  describe  it,  using  the  following  out- 
line: 

1.  Name  of  variety. 

2.  Color  of  grain  and  cob. 

3.  Surface,  dent  or  flint. 

4.  Rows  of  kernels ;  number,  straightness,  spacing,  and 
completeness. 

5.  Kernels,  firm  or  loose. 

6.  Shape  of  the  ear. 

7.  Butt;  even,  shallow  or  deep. 

8.  Tip ;  exposed  or  covered,  nature  of  kernel  at  tip. 

9.  Kernel  shape. 

10.    Length  and  circumference  of  ear. 

4.  A  grain  of  corn.    Soak  a  few  grains  of  corn  in  hot 
water  for  twenty  minutes.     With  a  sharp  knife  remove  the 
tip  cap,  a  small  cap  covering  the  end  of  the  kernel.     Begin 
where  the  tip  cap  has  been  broken,  and  remove  the  hull  in 
strips.    The  part  immediately  under  the  hull,  covering  almost 
all  of  the  kernel,  is  called  the  horny  gluten.    Carefully  shave 
it  off  with  a  sharp  knife,  then  carefully  remove  the  germ. 
Notice  the  size,  position,  and  parts  of  the  germ.    The  remain- 
der of  the  kernel  is  starch,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  the 
horny  starch  and  the  white  starch.    The  horny  starch  lies  on 
the  back  and  sides  of  the  kernel.     The  white  starch  occupies 
the  crown  end  above  the  germ.     Make  an  enlarged  drawing 
of  the  kernel,  showing  and  naming  these  parts. 

5.  Preliminary  study  to  corn  scoring-.     Each   student 
should  have  an  ear  of  corn,  and  tabulate  in  his  notebook  his 
observations  on  the  ear,  as  follows : 


88 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Ideal      Good       Pair         Poor 

Shape  of  ear 

Length  of  ear 

Circumference  of  ear 

Tip  of  ear 

Butt  of  ear 

Kernel    uniformity 

Kernel   shape 

Color  in  grain  and  cob 

Space  between  kernels  at  cob 

Space  between  rows 

Vitality  or  seed  condition 

Trueness  to  type 

Proportion  of  shelled  corn  to  cob 

Indicate  with  cross  (X)  opposite  each  point  the  column  in  which 
you  would  place  the  point. 


Crown- 
Starch 


FIG.   15.      STRUCTURE  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN 

6.     Scoring1  practice.    Provide  each  pupil  with  ten  acres 
of  corn  and  let  him  practice  scoring,  using  the  score-card  of 


CORN  89 

your  state.     Each  pupil  should  score  a  half  dozen  or  more 
ten-ear  samples  before  this  exercise  is  concluded. 

8.  Rack  for  holding  seed  corn.    A  simple,  inexpensive,  but 
very  good  method  of  caring  for  seed  corn  is  described  below : 

Cut  a  piece  of  binding  twine  twelve  feet  long ;  tie  the  ends 
together,  thus  forming  a  loop.  Place  one  end  of  the  loop  over 
the  right  and  the  other  over  the  le*ft  hand,  holding  the  hands 
about  two  feet  apart  and  at  such  height  that  the  middle  of 
the  strands  just  touches  the  floor.  Place  an  ear  of  corn  in  the 
swing  thus  made,  with  the  strands  four  or  five  inches  apart 
under  the  ear. 

When  the  first  ear  is  in  place,  bring  the  left  hand,  with  its 
strand,  through  the  strings  held  in  the  right  hand  and  on 
under  to  the  elbow  of  the  right  arm,  thus  crossing  the  strings 
over  the  first  ear.  Then  place  the  second  ear  in  the  crossed 
strings  over  the  first  ear ;  withdraw  the  left  hand ;  the  strings 
will  then  be  crossed  again  ready  for  the  third  ear.  Repeat 
this  operation  until  the  end  of  the  string  is  reached;  then 
loop  the  short  end  over  the  long  one,  leaving  a  loop  by  which 
to  hang  the  string  of  corn.  Let  the  pupils  prepare  a  few 
strings  of  corn  to  hang  in  the  schoolroom  for  Corn  Day. 

Another  rack  can  be  made  of  strips  of  lath  as  follows: 

Get  a  bundle  -of  plastering  lath,  and  two  boards  about  4 
feet  long  and  5  inches  wide.  Nail  the  lath  strips  opposite 
each  other  on  the  board,  about  3  inches  apart,  so  that  when 
all  are  nailed  on,  the  whole  affair  will  stand  supported  by 
the  boards  as  end  pieces.  The  corn  is  then  laid  across  from 
one  lath  to  the  other,  thus  securing  free  circulation  of  air 
about  the  ears,  and  allowing  them  to  be  easily  handled. 

9.  Testing  seed  corn.    Follow  directions  for  testing  seed 
corn  given  in  the  chapter,  and  practice  testing  at  least  a 
bushel  of  corn.     At  the  proper  season  test  the  seed  of  the 
farmers  of  the  community. 

10.  Shrinkage  in  corn.    Procure  ten  ears  of  corn  from 


90  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  field.  Husk  and  weigh  them.  Record  the  weight  and 
place  them  in  a  dry,  safe  place.  Weight  also  ten  ears  of 
corn  from  last  year's  crop.  Keep  these  also.  Weigh  both 
ten-ear  samples  at  intervals  of  two  weeks.  Is  there  a  change 
in  the  weights?  Determine  the  loss  of  weight  and  the  per- 
centage of  loss.  This  is  the  shrinkage 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SOILS 

"Population  must  increase  rapidly,  more  rapidly  than  in  former 
times,  and  ere  long  the  most  valuable  of  all  arts  will  be  the  art  of 
deriving  a  comfortable  subsistence  from  the  smallest  area  of  soil." 

— Abraham  Lincoln 

"It  is  not  the  land  itself  that  constitutes  the  farmer's  wealth,  but 
it  is  in  the  constituents  of  the  soil  which  serve  for  the  nutrition 
of  plants  that  this  wealth  directly  consists." 

— Liebig 

SOIL  PHYSICS 

The  soil  a  great  natural  resource.  The  few  feet  of  soil 
covering  the  surface  of  the  earth  form  the  most  important 
natural  resource  we  have.  The  inscription  carved  over  the 
entrance  to  the  Agricultural  Building  of  the  University  of 
Illinois — "The  wealth  of  Illinois  is  in  her  soil,  and  her  strength 
lies  in  its  intelligent  development" — is  true  for  all  the  states 
of  the  Union.  It  is  well,  therefore,  that  we  study  the  origin, 
nature,  composition,  and  function  of  this  valuable  resource,  to 
the  end  that  it  may  be  wisely  used  and  permanently  conserved 
for  all  the  future  generations.  The  careless  observer  is  likely 
to  think  of  the  soil  as  merely  dirt,  and  the  unskilled  farmer 
who  dislikes  his  occupation  often  thinks  of  the  soil  only  as 
a  prison  floor  to  which,  perhaps,  he  is  bound  by  chains  of 

91 


92  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

debt  and  from  which  he  must  eke  out  a  miserable  existence. 
We  should  know  at  the  outset  that  the  soil  is  full  of  life  and 
science,  and  that  without  it  we  could  not  be  living  in  this 
world  today.  Most  of  our  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  comes 
directly  or  indirectly  from  the  soil. 

Formation  of  the  soil.  We  are  so  familiar  with  the  soil 
as  we  see  it  that  most  of  us  do  not  stop  to  think  that  it  was 
ever  different.  But  it  has  really  taken  a  long  time  for  nature 
to  form  what  we  know  as  the  soil,  and  in  so  doing  she  has 
employed  wonderful  agencies  about  which  we  shall  write.  If 
we  were  to  examine  a  sample  of  soil  with  a  strong  magnify- 
ing glass,  we  would  find  that  it  is  made  up  largely  of  fine 
particles  of  rock.  Mixed  with  these  particles  in  varying 
quantities  are  dark  materials  which  are  called  organic  mat- 
ter, or  sometimes  humus.  A  closer  examination  will  show 
that  the  organic  matter  is  simply  the  remains  of  plants  and 
animals  which  have  formerly  grown  on  the  land,  and  which 
have  partially  decayed  or  rotted  in  the  soil.  We  find,  then, 
that  the  soil  is  composed  of  small  particles  of  rocks  mixed 
with  the  remains  of  former  plants  and  animals,  and  that  by 
far  the  larger  part  consists  of  these  rock  particles.  This 
suggests  the  truth  that  the  soil  has  been  formed  from  the 
solid  rocks,  such  as  are  found  beneath  it.  Geologists  tell  us 
that  at  one  time  all  the  surface  of  the  earth  was  solid  rock; 
at  that  time  there  was  nothing  like  what  we  now  know  as 
soil.  These  rocks  contained  all  the  elements  necessary  to 
make  soil  and  furnish  food  for  plants,  with  the  exception 
of  the  elements,  nitrogen,  oxygen  and  carbon,  which  come 
from  the  air.  Just  as  it  is  necessary  for  the  miller  to  grind 


SOILS  93 

the  wheat  to  make  it  into  food  for  man,  so  it  became  neces- 
sary for  nature's  forces  to  grind  the  rocks  in  order  to  pre- 
pare the  food  in  them  for  plants.  In  other  words,  the  first 
process  in  soil  formation  is  the  pulverization  of  rocks. 

Several  methods  have  been  used  to  bring  about  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  rocks.  Among  these  is  change  of  tempera- 
ture, or  heat  and  cold.  The  expansion  and  contraction  of 
the  rock  particles  due  to  heat  and  cold  and  the  water  con- 
tent result  in  the  breaking  up  of  these  rocks  into  small 
pieces.  Another  factor  is  the  action  of  running  water. 
Water  running  over  stones  gradually  wears  off  the  surface. 
Rapidly  moving  water  carries  pieces  of  stone  along  with  it, 
and  these  rubbing  together  and  over  the  surface  of  the 
stream  bed  help  to  break  up  the  stones  and  make  soil. 
There  are  also  chemical  influences  of  air  and  water  in  aiding 
these  physical  forces.  Another  agency  which  helps  to 
grind  rocks  is  moving  ice  in  the  form  of  glaciers.  There 
is  an  accepted  theory  that  at  one  time  all  the  northern  part 
of  our  country  was  covered  with  a  thick  sheet  of  ice.  This 
immense  glacier  pushed  its  way  down  from  Canada,  carrying 
with  it  large  quantities  of  rock,  grinding  them  against  each 
other  until  they  were  reduced  to  fine  soil  material.  When  the 
ice  melted  later,  the  rock  particles  were  distributed  and 
became  the  great  glacier  deposits  upon  which  the  soil  was 
formed. 

Soil  produced  by  the  mere  grinding  of  rocks  alone  is  not 
sufficient  for  crop  production,  however.  The  plant-food  in 
this  soil  must  be  made  available,  that  is  soluble  for  plant 
roots  to  absorb.  Water  is  important  in  bringing  about  this 


94  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

change.  Water  which  falls  on  the  soil  conducts  carbonic 
acid  gas  from  the  air,  and  this  helps  dissolve  quantities 
of  the  rock  minerals.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  also  helps 
to  make  plant-food  available  in  the  soil.  Mineral  mat- 
ter alone,  as  we  shall  learn  later,  can  not  support 
plant  life.  A  soil  to  be  fertile  must  contain  nitrogen.  All 
the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  came  originally  from  the  atmosphere. 
The  air  is  four-fifths  nitrogen,  but  it  is  in  a  form  which 
most  plants  can  not  use.  Before  it  can  serve  as  a  plant-food 
in  the  soil,  it  must  be  combined  with  oxygen  and  certain  min- 
eral elements  in  the  soil  in  the  form  of  a  nitrate.  A  little 
of  this  is  formed  during  electrical  storms  and  is  carried  into 
the  soil  by  the  rain. 

The  growth  of  vegetation  is  a  factor  in  soil  formation.  The 
vegetation  began  with  the  smallest  forms,  such  as  lichens  and 
mosses.  These  die  and  become  a  part  of  the  soil.  The  soil 
is  soon  able  to  produce  larger  plants  and  to  add  the  residue 
of  these  plant  growths  to  the  soil  in  its  formation.  The  plants 
upon  decaying  give  rise  to  the  organic  matter,  and  this  in- 
creases the  fertility  of  the  land,  by  being  a  source  of  plant- 
food  and  soil  aeration,  and  by  increasing  the  water-holding 
power.  During  the  decomposition  of  the  plants,  acid  sub- 
stances are  formed  which  act  upon  the  rocks  in  such  a  way 
as  to  make  more  plant-food  available.  One  of  the  products 
of  this  decay  is  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  gas  is  dissolved  by 
the  water  and  is  an  important  factor  in  disintegrating  the 
rocks.  The  roots  of  plants  often  penetrate  the  soil  to  great 
depths  and  exert  tremendous  force  in  breaking  apart  rocks 
and  stones,  if  they  once  obtain  a  foothold  in  the  crevices; 


SOILS  95 

and  after  they  decay  they  leave  little  channels  in  the  soil 
which  serve  to  carry  down  water  laden  with  carbonic  acid, 
as  well  as  to  introduce  air  that  is  a  factor  in  bringing  about 
chemical  changes  in  the  soil  and  in  furthering  work  in  soil 
formation. 

We  shall  learn  later  that  in  the^process  of  soil  formation 
certain  leguminous  plants,  such  as  clovers,  vetches-,  etc.,  are 
introduced  into  the  soil,  and  that  upon  the  roots  of  these 
plants  are  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria,  enabling  the  plant 
to  derive  part  of  its  food  from  the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  return  of  these  plants  to  the  soil  through  their  decay  adds 
the  element  of  nitrogen  in  the  further  formation  of  soil.  The 
soil  is  not  only  alive  with  bacteria,  but  myriads  of  forms  of 
animal  life  live  and  burrow  in  the  soil,  and  aid  in  soil  forma- 
tion. 

The  various  agencies  concerned  in  the  formation  of  the 
soil  do  not  act  separately,  nor  necessarily  in  any  particular 
order.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  all  the  processes  take  place  simul- 
taneously. Neither  is  all  the  soil  formed  directly  from  the 
original  rock.  The  soil  is  almost  constantly  moving,  for  some 
of  the  agencies  which  -form  soil  also  carry  it  away.  It  is 
always  moving  from  higher  to  lower  levels..  Consequently  it 
is  thinnest  at  the  top  of  the  hill  and  deepest  in  the  valley. 
Nature  undisturbed  has  many  ways  of  adding  to  the  supply 
of  available  plant-food  in  the  soil.  The  various  forces  dis- 
cussed have  all  tended  to  change  the  food  into  forms  that  can 
be  assimilated  by  the  plants.  Man  has  reversed  the  process, 
and  while  adding  little  to  the  soil  has  removed  much  from 
it.  A  study  of  the  formation  of  the  soil  suggests  two  things 


96  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

that  the  fanner  can  do  to  prevent  the  wearing  out  of  the 
soil:  first,  he  can  so  treat  the  soil  as  to  assist  and  hasten 
nature  in  the  process  of  making  plant-food;  second,  he  can 
return  to  the  soil  an  amount  of  plant-food  equivalent  to  that 
removed  by  the  crop. 

Classification  according  to  texture  and  structure.  When 
the  soil  is  formed  by  so  many  varied  agencies  as  are  enu- 
merated above,  it  is  clear  that  it  will  vary  in  fineness  of 
texture  according  to  the  degree  to  which  the  rock  material 
has  been  reduced.  Some  particles  are  so  small  that  twenty- 
five  thousand  of  them  can  be  placed  in  a  linear  inch.  It  is 
impossible  for  the  unaided  eye  to  distinguish  such  small 
objects.  From  this  extremely  small  size  the  particles  range 
in  size  to  small  stones.  Some  soils  are  composed  almost 
entirely  of  the  smallest  particles,  while  others  are  made  up 
of  coarser  material.  The  size  of  the  unit  particle  determines 
soil  texture;  the  arrangement  of  these  units  determines  soil 
structure.  The  fineness  and  arrangement  of  the  rock  parti- 
cles, together  with  the  kind  of  rock  from  which  the  soil  was 
derived,  influence  greatly  the  producing  power  of  the  soils. 

Soils  may  be  classified,  based  upon  size  of  the  particles, 
into  stony  soil,  gravelly  soil,  sand,  silt,  clay,  and  loams.  The 
various  grades  of  soil  particles  and  amounts  present,  together 
with  the  amount  of  organic  matter,  give  rise  to  the  names 
of  the  common  soil  types;  as,  black  clay  loam,  brown  silt 
loam,  gray  silt  loam,  yellow  silt  loam,  peat,  peaty  loam, 
sandy  loam,  etc.  Reduction  in  size  of  particles  in- 
creases the  internal  area  or  total  area  of  all  particles, 
thereby  increasing  the  feeding  area  for  the  root  hairs  and 


SOILS  97 

the  power  of  the  soil  to  hold  and  move  moisture.  The  size 
and  arrangement  of  the  soil  particles  are  of  great  importance 
in  farming  operations.  Clay  holds  so  much  moisture  because 
of  its  fine  texture,  and  gives  it  up  so  slowly  that  farmers 
call  such  soils  cold  and  heavy.  A  good  soil  should  be  a  bal- 
anced mixture  of  these  soil  materials. 

Soil  water.  We  cannot  think  of  soil  without  noting  its 
close  connection  to  the  water  it  contains,  or  should  contain. 
The  function  of  water  in  the  soil  is  to  supply  plant-food, 
to  dissolve  mineral,  plant-food  elements,  and  to  carry  them 
in  solution  by  capillary  attraction  to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
There  are  three  forms  of  water  in  the  soil :  first,  the  free  or 
gravitational  water ;  second,  the  capillary  water ;  third,  hygro- 
scopic water.  The  gravitational  water  is  the  excessive  water 
which  we  seek  to  remove  by  drainage.  It  seeks  its  level  at 
the  water  table  of  the  ground.  The  capillary  water  is  the 
water  adhering  to  soil  particles  and  drawn  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion to  the  drier  areas.  It  is  the  most  important  form  of 
water  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  Hygroscopic  water  is  the 
water  in  the  form -of  a  very  thin  film  about  each  particle  of 
soil.  This  water  can  not  be  removed  except  at  very  high 
temperature,  and  it  has  little  value,  perhaps,  in  plant  growth. 

The  presence  of  water  in  the  soil  is  one  of  the  controlling 
factors  in  crop  production.  The  farmer  may  have  some 
control  over  the  water  supply  of  the  soil:  he  may  increase 
the  water  content  by  incorporating  in  his  soil  more  organic 
matter,  thus  decreasing  loss  by  percolation;  he  may  provide 
the  soil  mulch,  preventing  evaporation  of  the  water  from  the 
soil;  he  may  deepen  the  soil  by  cultivation,  thus  increasing 


98  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  water-holding  capacity  by  preventing  a  larger  amount 
from  running  off.  The  farmer  may  decrease  the  soil  water 
by  drainage,  but  at  the  same  time  increase  the  available 
water  for  his  crop.  The  best  control  of  soil  water  is  seen 
in  systems  of  irrigation  and  dry  farming. 

Soil  air.  A  considerable  amount  of  air  is  found  in  the 
interstices  of  all  good,  live  soil.  This  air  functions  in  sup- 
plying to  the  soil  the  elements  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  It  is  not  definitely  known  what  the  whole 
work  of  oxygen  in  the  soil  is,  but  we  know  that  the  roots  of 
most  economic  plants  must  have  oxygen  about  them  or, 
like  animals,  they  will  die  for  want  of  this  element.  The 
bacteria  of  the  soil,  necessary  in  decomposing  organic  mat- 
ter and  in  extracting  nitrogen  from  the  air  for  the  legumes, 
must  have  an  oxygen  supply  or  else  their  processes  do  not 
continue.  Carbonic  acid  gas  functions  in  disintegrating  the 
mineral  elements  for  plant-food.  The  farmer  may  control 
to  a  certain  extent  the  air  of  the  soil.  The  incorporation  of 
organic  matter,  the  proper  tillage,  drainage,  etc.,  open  up 
the  soil,  making  avenues  for  the  movements  of  air  which 
function  as  described  above. 

Soil  temperature.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  tem- 
perature of  the  soil  must  be  congenial  to  the  growth  of  plants 
adapted  to  that  soil.  The  soil  must  have  sufficient  heat  for 
the  germination  of  the  seed,  for  the  growth  of  the  roots,  and 
for  the  activities  of  the  soil  bacteria.  The  temperature  of 
the  soil  is  affected  by  its  color,  slope,  water  content,  evapora- 
tion, and  organic  matter.  The  way  in  which  these  things 
affect  the  soil  temperature  is  evident.  Dark  colored  soils  are 


SOILS  99 

warmer  than  the  light  colored  ones.  Southern  and  western 
slopes  are  warmer  than  northern  and  eastern.  Water  logged 
soil  is  colder  than  a  dry  soil.  Soil  well  aerated  by  tillage, 
drainage,  and  organic  content  is  warmer  than  the  close,  dead 
soil. 

Active  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  By  active  organic  mat- 
ter we  mean  plant  and  animal  substances  in  process  of  active 
decay.  This  is  sometimes  called  humus,  but  we  should  under- 
stand humus  to  mean  that  organic  matter  which  is  in  various 
stages  of  active  decay  from  the  more  active  stages  to  the  car- 
bonized inactive  organic  matter,  such  as  coal.  The  decom- 
position of  organic  matter  is  carried  on  by  various  bacteria 
living  and  reproducing  under  favorable  conditions  upon  the 
organic  matter.  Such  organic  matter,  having  larger  surface 
than  inorganic  matter,  increases  the  water  content  of  the 
soil,  provides  aeration  and  makes  the  soil  friable.  The 
farmer  may  control  the  organic  content  of  the  soil,  and  this 
control  is  often  the  beginning  of  soil  improvement  and  sys- 
tems of  permanent  agriculture.  He  may  incorporate  in  the 
soil  the  crop  residues,  all  the  animal  manures  available,  and 
return  to  the  soil  most  of  the  legume  crops.  These  practices 
are  all  part  of  a  good  system  of  crop  rotation. 

Tillage  of  the  soil.  By  tillage  of  the  soil  we  mean  all 
the  handling  of  the  soil  usually  included  in  the  use  of  imple- 
ments for  plowing  and  preparation  for  plant  growth.  Til- 
lage of  the  soil  pulverizes  it,  and  puts  it  into  better  physical 
condition  for  providing  itself  with  the  proper  moisture.  Soil 
that  is  too  wet  works  at  a  disadvantage,  as  every  farmer 
knows,  causing  an  injury  requiring  a  long  time  to  correct 


100  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Tillage  opens  up  the  soil  to  air  and  increases  the  water  hold- 
ing capacity.  With  the  aeration  of  the  soil,  soil  organisms 
mentioned  above  flourish  and  successfully  reproduce,  and 
these  factors  in  turn  render  more  plant-food  available,  thus 
increasing  the  growth  of  the  plant.  It  is  a  well  known  fact 
that  shallow  cultivation  prevents  the  escape  of  water  by 
evaporation  and  is,  therefore,  a  successful  method  of  water 
conservation.  Someone  has  said  that  weeds  are  a  blessing 
to  the  farmer  because  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  to  rid  the 
land  of  weeds  he  brings  about  the  results  of  cultivation  men- 
tioned above.  Incidentally  it  may  be  noted  that  cultivation 
of  the  soil  is  a  method  of  combatting  many  insect  pests.  This 
is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  fall  plowing,  when  the  winter 
stages  of  certain  insects  may  thus  be  exposed  to  the  freezing 
weather. 

With  the  development  of  the  science  of  physics  and  of 
farm  machinery,  many  new  and  efficient  tools  of  cultivation 
are  coming  to  the  farm  to  bring  improvement  in  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil. 

Soil  organisms.  In  the  discussion  of  physical  conditions 
of  the  soil  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  more  recent  dis- 
coveries of  the  effects  of  soil  organisms  such  as  bacteria, 
insects,  worms,  and  even  rodents  upon  soil  conditions.  It 
has  already  been  stated  that  the  bacteria  working  in  the 
decaying  organic  matter  of  the  soil  make  possible  that  con- 
dition which  we  see  in  a  rich,  organic,  loamy  soil.  Since  these 
soil  organisms  are  so  essential  both  to  soil  physics  and  soil 
fertility,  as  we  shall  see  later,  it  is  necessary  that  the  condi- 
tions affecting  their  growth  be  kept  favorable — such  condi- 


SOILS 


101 


tions  as  air,  temperature,  organic  material,  and  freedom  from 
acidity.     These  are  problems  in  soil  physics. 

Effects  of  lime  in  the  soil.  We  usually  think  of  lime  as 
relating  to  soil  fertility,  but  we  know  that  the  application 
of  lime  to  the  soil  has  certain  effects  upon  its  physical  condi- 
tion. The  application  of  lime  to  «-  sandy  soil  has  a  tendency 
to  cement  together  the  particles  and  give  the  soil  more  body, 


FIG.   16.     A  LIME   SPREADER. 

improving  its  structure  and  tillage.  The  application  of  lime 
to  stiff  clay  soils  or  clay  loams  tends  to  flocculate  the  finer 
particles  and  open  up  the  soil,  giving  it  more  air,  making  it 
more  friable,  and  more  easily  drained. 

SOIL  FERTILITY 

The  idea  to  be  kept  constantly  before  the  student  of  agri- 
culture and  the  farmer  is  the  wise  use  of  the  natural  resources 


102  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

resulting  in  their  conservation.  A  study  of  soil  fertility, 
therefore,  must  keep  constantly  before  us  the  theme  of  con- 
servation— wisely  using  and  making  permanent  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  for  all  future  use.  To  restore  a  depleted  soil  to 
high  productive  power  in  economic  systems  of  agriculture 
requires  education  and  skill. 

Elements  of  plant-food.  The  farmer  should  be  as  familiar 
with  the  names  of  the  ten  essential  elements  of  plant-food  as 
he  is  with  the  names  of  his  ten  nearest  neighbors.  These 
plant-food  elements  are  just  as  necessary  for  the  plant  as 
food  is  for  animals.  Agricultural  plants  consist  of  ten  ele- 
ments. Not  a  keniel  of  corn,  grain  of  wheat,  leaf  of  clover, 
or  spear  of  grass  could  be  produced  if  the  plant  failed  to 
secure  any  one  of  these  ten  elements.  Some  of  them  are 
supplied  in  abundance  by  natural  processes;  others  are  not 
so  -provided,  and -the  farmer  must  supply  them  or  his  land 
becomes  unprpdueti.ve.  : 

-  -The- ten  elements  that  plants  live  on  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  calcium, 
iron,  and  magnesium.  Two  elements,  carbon  and  oxygen,  are 
contained  in  the  air  in  the  form  of  a  gas  called  carbon  diox- 
ide, and  this  compound  is  taken  into  the  plant  through  the 
thousands  of  breathing  pores  upon  the  leaves.  Hydrogen  is 
one  of  the  elements  of  which  water  is-  composed.  Water  is 
taken  into  the  plant  through  the  roots,  carried  through  the 
stem  to  the  leaves,  and  there,  under  the  influence  of  chloro- 
phyll, sunlight,  and  life-principle,  the  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen  are  made  to  unite  into  important  plant  compounds, 
such  as  the  sugars,  later  transformed  into  starch  and  fiber. 


SOILS  103 

Oxygen  exists  in  the  air  as  a  free  element,  is  taken  in  by 
respiration  through  the  leaves  of  the  plant,  and  functions  in 
a  similar  way  as  it  does  in  the  animal  body. 

Carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen  constitute  the  largest  part 
of  the  agricultural  plant,  but  plant  growth  is  not  possible 
without  seven  other  elements  supplied  by  the  soil.  Iron  is 
one  of  the  essential  elements  of  plant-foods,  but  the  amount 
required  is  small  and  the  amount  contained  in  the  soil  is 
large.  Sulphur  is  found  in  plants  in  small  amounts  and  is 
essential  to  plant  growth.  The  supply  of  sulphur  in  normal 
soils  is  not  large,  but  with  the  decay  of  organic  matter  a 
great  deal  of  sulphur  passes  into  the  air  and  is  brought  back 
to  the  soil,  dissolved  in  rain.  Under  normal  conditions  the 
sulphur  supply  is  ample  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  farm  crops. 

There  are  five  other  essential  elements  of  plant-food  that 
require  special  consideration  in  connection  with  permanent 
soil  fertility.  They  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  calcium,  mag- 
nesium, and  potassium.  In  studying  these  five  elements  we 
must  note  the  following  points:  the  soil's  supply,  the  crop 
requirements,  the"  loss  by  leaching,  the  methods  of  liberation, 
and  the  means  of  renewal.  The  neglect  of  one  or  more  of 
these  points  will  reduce  the  fertility  of  cultivated  soils  and 
bring  about  conditions  that  are  well  known  in  the  impov- 
erished older  farm  lands  of  the  United  States.  Intelligent 
attention  to  these  factors  will  restore  and  make  productive 
such  lands. 

Fertility  in  normal  soils.  Of  the  important  mineral  ele- 
ments potassium  is  the  most  abundant  in  common  soils.  Doc- 
tor Cyril  G.  Hopkins  of  Illinois  states  that  in  an  average  of 


104  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

ten  residual  soils  from  ten  different  geological  formations  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  two  million  pounds  of 
surface  soil  were  found  to  contain: 

Potassium    37,860  pounds 

Magnesium 14,080 

Calcium    1,810 

Phosphorus   1,100 

He  further  states  that  in  the  common  type  of  the  great  soil 
area  of  Illinois'  corn  belt,  two  million  pounds  of  the  sur- 
face soil  contain  as  an  average : 

Potassium    36,250  pounds 

Magnesium    8,790 

Calcium    , 11,450 

Phosphorus   1,190 

In  the  older  clay  silt  loam  soil  of  southern  Illinois,  he  states 
the  content  for  the  same  number  of  pounds  to  be: 

Pptassium    24,940  pounds 

Magnesium    4,680       " 

Calcium    3,420 

Phosphorus   840       " 

It  will  be  seen  by  these  figures  that  these  soils  are  rich  in 
potassium  and  poor  in  phosphorus.  These  figures  bear  some 
relation  to  the  composition  of  the  earth's  crust,  which  con- 
tains in  two  million  pounds,  49,200  pounds  of  potassium  and 
2,200  pounds  of  phosphorus. 

Plant-food  required  for  crop  growth.  Quotations  from 
Bulletin  No.  123  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  give  the 
following  interesting  data : 


SOILS  105 

Produce 

Kind  and  amount  Nitrogen     Phosphorus  Potassium 

Corn,  grain    (100  bu.) 100  17  19 

Corn,  stover  (3  T.) 48                     6  52 

Oats,  grain  (100  bu.) 66  11  16 

Oats,  straw  (2i/2  T.) 31                     5  52 

Wheat,  grain   (50  bu.) 71  12  13 

Wheat,  straw  (2%  T.) 2j>                     4  45 

Timothy  hay  (3  T.) 72                     9  71 

Clover,  seed  (4  bu.) 723 

Clover,  hay  (4  T.) 160  20  120 

Alfalfa   (8  T.) 400  36  192 

Apples   (600  Ibs.) 47                     5  57 

Potatoes   (300  bu.) 63  13  90 

Fat  cattle  (1,000  Ibs.) 25                     7  1 

Fat  hogs  (1,000  Ibs.) 18                     3  1 

Milk  (10,000  Ibs.) . . 57                      7  12 

Butter   (500  Ibs.) 1                       .2  .1 

The  value  of  the  elements  may  be  computed  on  the  basis 
of  a  common  market  price  for  available  plant-food,  as  fol- 
lows: 

Nitrogen    .15  cents  per  Ib. 

Phosphorus    12     "  "     " 

Potassium    6     "          "     " 

The  plant-food  required  for  one  acre  of  wheat  yielding  50 
bushels,  one  acre  each  of  corn  and  oats  yielding  100  bushels, 
and  one  acre  of  clover  yielding  4  tons,  is  the  total  crop 
need  of: 

Potassium  320  pounds 

Magnesium   68       " 

Calcium    168 

Phosphorus    77       " 

From  these  figures  one  may  estimate  the  cost  of  fertilizers 
in  maximum  crop  production. 


106  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Liberation  of  soil  fertility.  After  determining  the  total 
amount  of  plant-food  in  a  plot  of  soil,  the  next  important 
question  is  not  how  much  is  available,  but  how  much  can  be 
made  available  during  the  course  of  the  crop  season  year  after 
year.  We  must  liberate  plant-food  by  practical  methods. 
We  must  convert  it  from  insoluble  compounds  into  soluble 
and  usable  forms,  for  the  plant-food  must  be  made  soluble 
before  the  plant  can  take  it  from  the  soil.  It  has  already 
been  stated  in  previous  paragraphs  that  decaying  organic 
matter  is  the  important  factor  in  making  plant-food  avail- 
able, and  attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  decom- 
position of  this  organic  matter  is  hastened  by  drainage  and 
tillage,  which  permit  the  air  to  enter  the  soil  and  assist  in 
the  decomposition  of  the  organic  material.  The  application 
of  limestone,  as  will  be  explained  later,  also  assists  in  the 
liberation  of  certain  plant-foods. 

Loss  of  plant-food.  These  plant-food  elements  are  lost 
by  cropping,  erosion,  and  leaching.  In  a  four-year  crop 
rotation  under  ordinary  practices,  the  amount  per  acre  of 
calcium  lost  by  leaching  is  300  pounds;  of  magnesium,  30 
pounds;  of  phosphorus,  2  pounds;  of  potassium,  10.  It  is 
a  well  known  fact  that  great  quantities  of  our  richest  soil 
are  washed  from  the  hillsides  and  valleys  into  the  streams 
and  carried  to  the  sea.  Some  of  the  richest  of  the  corn  belt 
soils  have  found  their  way  to  help  build  the  delta  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  The  table  above  gives  some  idea  of 
the  extent  to  which  the  plant-food  of  the  soil  is  lost  through 
removal  of  crops  that  are  grown  upon  the  soil. 

Sources  of  elements  likely  to  become  deficient.    It  was 


SOILS  107 

noted  above  that  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  and  prob- 
ably calcium  and  magnesium,  were  the  elements  likely  to 
become  deficient.  This  being  true,  we  must  look  to  sources, 
from  which  these  elements  may  be  economically  obtained, 
and  maintain  if  possible  and  even  increase  the  fertility  and 
productive  capacity  of  the  soils.  Some  sources  from  which 
these  elements  may  be  obtained  are  crop  residues,  barnyard 
manures,  legumes,  commercial  fertilizers,  and  mineral  sup- 
plies. 

Crop  residue.  All  the  material  which  makes  up  the  roots, 
stubble,  leaves,  and  other  residue  left  after  removing  the 
crop,  contains  plant-food  elements  derived  from  the  soil  and 
air.  To  remove  this  residue  or  to  burn  it  would  be  an  evident 
loss  of  soil  fertility.  Should  these  residues  be  returned,  their 
decomposition  would  not  only  add  the  elements  to  the  soil 
in  large  measure,  but  the  organic  material  which  they  would 
supply  would  give  greater  water-holding  capacity  to  the  soil, 
raise  its  temperature,  foster  the  growth  of  bacteria,  and  pro- 
mote better  physical  condition. 

Legumes.  Every  school  boy  knows  that  upon  the  roots 
of  the  legumes  such  as  red  clover,  sweet  clover,  alfalfa,  soy 
beans,  cow-peas,  vetch,  etc.,  are  growing  nodules  which  are 
colonies  of  bacteria  living  upon  the  roots  of  these  plants, 
drawing  the  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  making  it  over 
into  an  available  form  for  the  plant.  This  nitrogen  is 
assimilated  into  the  leaf,  stem,  root,  and  seed  of  the  plant. 
About  as  much  nitrogen  is  contained  in  the  part  of  clover 
above  ground  as  is  taken  from  the  air.  It  will  be  seen,  then, 
that  if  these  legume  plants  be  plowed  under  and  incorporated 


108  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

in  the  soil,  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  will  be  supplied  to  the 
soil.  In  addition  to  this  value,  the  mass  of  material  making 
up  the  legume  crop  will  add  to  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil 
and  give  all  the  values  ascribed  above. 

Organic  matter  and  its  relation  to  soil  fertility.  When 
barnyard  manures,  crop  residues,  legume  crops,  or  any  other 
organic  matter  are  incorporated  in  the  soil  and  the  physical 
conditions  are  right,  the  decay  of  this  organic  matter  lib- 
erates directly  plant-food  elements,  helps  to  dissolve  certain 
mineral  elements  such  as  phosphorus  and  potassium,  and 
makes  them  available  as  plant-food.  The  organic  content 
of  the  soil  provides  a  more  suitable  home  for  the  growth  of 
bacteria,  which  are  important  factors  in  soil  fertility. 

It  must  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  barnyard  manure, 
in  addition  to  furnishing  excellent  organic  matter,  is  also  a 
source  of  plant-food.  Ordinary  barnyard  manure  contains 
per  ton  10  pounds  of  nitrogen,  2  of  phosphorus,  8  of  potas- 
sium, with  a  value  of  $2.22  per  ton  for  the  plant-food  ele- 
ments. We  may  see  from  these  figures  that  it  would  take  a 
very  great  amount  of  barnyard  manure  to  maintain  per- 
manently the  fertility  of  the  soil  under  maximum  crop 
production,  as  is  also  shown  in  the  paragraph  above  on 
plant-food  required  for  crop  growth. 

Nitrogen.  Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  elements 
in  nature,  yet  it  is  the  most  costly  element  to  the  farmer  as 
a  plant-food.  Some  important  facts  regarding  nitrogen  em- 
phasize its  value  to  the  farmer: 

a.     All  growing  plants  require  nitrogen. 


SOILS  109 

b.  Plants  can  get  nitrogen  only  as  a  compound  from  the 
soil. 

c.  Nitrogen  is  a  free  gas  in  the  air. 

d.  There  are  about  seventy  million  pounds  of  nitrogen 
over  each  acre. 

e.  Nitrogen  in  the  combined  form  is  unstable  and  easily 
lost. 

f .  The  nitrogen  supply  in  most  soils  is  low. 

g.  Nitrogen  compounds  in  the  soil  are  mainly  in  organic 
matter  and  extend  only  a  few  inches  below  the  surface. 

h.  Nitrogen  is  the  one  element  of  plant-food  that  is  most 
easily  lost  and  wasted,  and  is  often  the  limiting  element  in 
maximum  crop  production. 

i.  The  growing  crops  draw  heavily  upon  the  nitrogen  sup- 
ply in  the  soil. 

j.  If  it  were  possible  to  exhaust  the  supply  in  the  average 
soil,  it  would  be  entirely  used  up  by  thirty-two  100-bushel 
crops  of  corn. 

•  k.     Considerable  nitrogen  is  lost  by  percolation  of  drain- 
age water. 

1.     Many  nitrogen  compounds  are  easily  lost  by  leaching. 

Nitrogen  is  obtained  for  agricultural  purposes  from  the 
following  sources:  rainfall,  snowfall,  and  electrical  storms; 
bacteria  are  the  natural  means  by  which  nitrogen  is  supplied 
to  the  soil.  Fish,  blood,  tankage,  cottonseed,  sodium  nitrate, 
calcium  nitrate,  and  ammonium  sulphate  are  commercial  forms 
of  nitrogen.  Farm  manure,  green  manures,  such  as  inocu- 
lated legumes  and  crop  residues,  are  the  natural  economic 


HO  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

methods  of  maintaining  and  increasing  soil  nitrogen  in  gen- 
eral farming. 

The  chief  value  of  farm  manure,  aside  from  its  supplying 
organic  matter,  is  its  source  of  nitrogen  supply,  but,  as  was 
noted  above,  it  is  impracticable  under  the  present  production 
of  live  stock  to  look  to  this  source  for  an  adequate  supply 
of  nitrogen.  A  more  interesting  and  economic  source  is  the 
green  manure  from  inoculated  legumes.  One  ton  of  red 
clover,  when  plowed  into  the  average  normal  soil,  will  enrich 
the  soil  by  the  addition  of  forty  pounds  of  nitrogen,  and 
is,  therefore,  equal  in  nitrogen  value  to  four  tons  of  barn- 
yard manure.  The  use  of  red  clover,  alfalfa,  cow-peas,  soy 
beans,  sweet  clover,  and  other  legumes  provides  the  greatest 
soil  improvers,  and  has  made  possible  a  permanent  economic 
system  of  soil  improvement.  The  use  of  high-priced  com- 
mercial nitrogen  is  artificial  and  unprofitable  in  general  farm- 
ing operations. 

A  system  of  crop  rotation  that  does  not  include  a  legume 
crop  which  may  be  incorporated  into  the  soil  to  furnish  the 
organic  matter  and  the  nitrogen  supply  is  not  a  part  of  a 
permanent  system  of  soil  improvement. 

Phosphorus.  Doctor  Hopkins  calls  phosphorus  the  master- 
key  to  permanent  agriculture.  He  says  that  phosphorus  is 
really  what  its  name  signifies — light-bringer ;  but  that  it  is 
a  light  which  the  American  farmer  has  not  seen.  We  have 
exported  to  Europe  each  year  enough  phosphorus  to  double 
the  average  crop  production  of  the  entire  United  States,  if 
it  were  all  wisely  used  on  our-  soils.  The  tables  given  in 
a  previous  paragraph  show  that  ordinary  soils  are  defi- 


SOILS  HI 

cient  in  phosphorus,  and  the  results  of  many  experiments  in 
the  United  States  and  in  England  have  shown  that  the 
application  of  phosphorus  in  good  systems  of  farming  pro- 
duces marked  and  profitable  increases  in  crop  yields. 

The  important  question  is  what  form  of  phosphorus  we 
shall  apply.  There  are  many  kinds  of  fertilizing  materials 
containing  phosphorus,  and  one  may  cost  many  times  as  much 
as  another.  For  example,  280  pounds  of  phosphorus  in  a 
ton  of  finely  ground  natural  rock  phosphate  may  be  pur- 
chased at  the  mines  in  Tennessee  and  delivered  at  the  farm- 
er's railroad  station  in  the  central  states  for  about  $12. 
Or,  the  ton  of  raw  phosphate  may  be  mixed  with  a  ton  of 
sulphuric  acid  in  the  factory,  and  the  two  tons  of  acid  phos- 
phate may  be  sold  to  the  farmer  for  $60.  Again,  the  fer- 
tilizer manufacturer  may  mix  two  tons  of  acid  phosphate 
with  two  tons  of  filler  containing  a  little  nitrogen  and  potas- 
sium, and  then  sell  the  four  tons  of  complete  fertilizer  for 
$160.  And  the  farmer  gets  only  as  much  phosphorus  in  the 
complete  fertilizer  for  $160  as  he  would  get  in  the  one  ton 
of  natural  phosphate  for  $12. 

Common  sources  of  phosphorus  are  raw  bone,  steamed  bone, 
raw  rock  phosphate,  acid  phosphate,  and  basic  slag.  The  next 
important  question  for  consideration  is  the  problem  of  mak- 
ing the  phosphorus  available  as  it  appears  in  these  various 
sources. 

When  the  natural  rock  is  used,  it  should  be  ground  so 
that  at  least  90  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  sieve  with  ten 
thousand  meshes  to  the  square  inch,  and  a  content  of  from 
12  to  15  per  cent  of  phosphorus  should  also  be  guaranteed. 


112  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Twelve  to  15  per  cent  of  phosphorus  in  rock  phosphate  is 
equivalent  to  the  28  and  34  per  cent  of  the  so-called  phos- 
phoric acid.  It  must  also  be  said,  in  advising  the  use  of 
the  natural  rock,  that  it  must  be  used  liberally  and  in  con- 
nection with  plenty  of  decaying  organic  matter.  The  phos- 
phorus in  the  raw  rock  must  be  made  available,  and  this  is 
done  through  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter.  About 
one  ton  of  rock  phosphate  once  every  four  or  five  years  incor- 
porated in  the  soil  with  a  green  manure  crop  or  barnyard 
manure  is  the  economic  way  of  using  this  mineral  plant-food. 
As  was  said  before,  in  the  decomposition  of  these  organic 
materials,  carbonic  acid  and  possibly  other  acids  are  formed, 
and  these  furnish  a  solvent  for  the  phosphorus  compound  in 
the  natural  rock. 

Other  forms  of  phosphorus,  such  as  raw  bone,  steamed 
bone,  and  acid  phosphate,  are  more  quickly  available  than 
the  rock  phosphate  and  give  quicker  results  when  used,  but 
they  are  more  expensive  when  purchased  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  supply  the  need.  These  soluble  forms  of  phosphorus 
may  be  practical  and  economical  in  truck  farming,  garden- 
ing, and  in  starting  such  crops  as  alfalfa  and  other  legumes. 

Potassium.  The  tables  given  in  a  preceding  paragraph 
show  that  potassium  is  an  abundant  element  in  normal  soils. 
It  is  found  in  greater  abundance  in  clay  soils  than  in  sandy 
or  peat  soils.  As  it  exists  in  clay  soils  it  is  often  unavailable 
and  must  be  made  soluble  for  the  plants'  use  by  proper 
tillage  and  by  the  use  of  organic  matter.  By  the  use  of 
active  organic  matter,  as  explained  above,  large  quantities 
of  potassium  otherwise  not  available  are  made  available  to 


SOILS  113 

the  plant  through  the  decomposition  of  the  organic  matter. 
Barnyard  manure  serves  in  this  way  in  addition  to  other  more 
direct  benefits.  In  a  peaty  swamp  soil  or  bog  land,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  potassium  content  is  often  very  deficient, 
and  that  its  deficiency  is  a  limiting  element  in  the  produc- 
tion of  crops. 

The  commercial  sources  of  potassium  are  kainit,  potassium 
sulphate,  potassium  chloride,  wood  ashes,  and  manure. 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  in  systems  of  general  farm- 
ing it  would  not  be  necessary  to  apply  commercial  forms  of 
potassium,  but  to  utilize  the  supply  already  found  in  abun- 
dance in  the  soil.  Sometimes,  however,  in  getting  legumes 
started,  and  in  building  up  worn  out  land,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  make  an  application  of  some  form  of  potassium  such 
as  kainit,  in  order  to  furnish  food  which  is  quickly  available 
for  the  young  plant.  In  truck  and  garden  farming  where 
intensive  methods  are  used,  applications  of  potassium  are 
often  profitable. 

Limestone.  We  must  not  omit  mentioning  limestone  as  a 
factor  in  soil  fertility.  Its  first  chemical  effect  is  to  neu- 
tralize the  excessive  acidity  which  prevents  the  growth  of 
legumes.  Often  the  first  step,  therefore,  in  renewing  a  soil 
is  to  correct  the  acidity,  making  it  possible  for  the  legumes 
to  grow  so  that  organic  matter  may  be  incorporated  into  the 
soil,  thus  furnishing  a  basis  upon  which  to  biuld  the  nitrogen 
and  mineral  plant-food  supplies.  Certain  plants  require  large 
amounts  of  calcium  as  a  plant-food,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa, 
and  blue  grass.  Lime  has  been  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  thou- 
sands of  years.  It  has  been  used  in  three  forms :  the  ground 


114  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

limestone  or  calcium  carbonate,  the  burned  lime  or  calcium 
oxide,  and  the  hydrated  lime  or  calcium  hydroxide.  Recent 
practices  have  justified  the  conclusion  that  ground  limestone 
may  be  applied  in  any  amount  with  no  injurious  results, 
while  caustic  lime  destroys  the  organic  matter,  dissipates  the 
soil  nitrogen,  is  disagreeable  to  handle,  and  may  injure  the 
crop.  If  dolomitic  limestone  is  used,  magnesium  as  well  as 
calcium  is  thus  added  to  the  soil.  Limestone  need  not  be 
very  finely  pulverized.  If  ground  so  that  it  will  pass  through 
a  ten-mesh  sieve,  it  is  fine  enough,  and  the  coarser  and  finer 
material  may  be  profitably  mixed  together  in  the  application. 

Limestone  is  easily  soluble  in  soil  water  carrying  carbonic 
acid.  It  is  thus  readily  available,  and  in  humid  sections  the 
loss  by  leaching  is  great.  About  two  tons  an  acre  of  ground 
limestone  should  be  applied  every  four  years  when  necessary 
in  economic  systems  of  farming.  There  are  now  on  the  mar- 
ket special  spreaders  to  use  in  the  application  of  fine  ground 
raw  rock  phosphate  and  the  pulverized  limestone. 

The  following  record  of  a  crop  rotation  and  the  applica- 
tion of  rock  phosphate  and  limestone  in  a  system  of  per- 
manent agriculture  is  an  account  of  an  actual  farm  in  south- 
ern Illinois  which  had  been  agriculturally  abandoned  for  five 
years  previous  because  of  its  inability  to  produce  profitable 
crops  with  ordinary  methods  of  farming.  This  outline  care- 
fully studied  will  give  the  student  and  the  practical  farmer 
the  correct  idea  of  permanent  systems  of  soil  fertility,  and 
what  is  meant  by  conservation  of  soil  resources. 

The  farm  under  consideration  consisted  of  about  300  acres 
of  poor,  gray  prairie  land  and  was  purchased  in  November, 


SOILS 


115 


1903,  for  $15  an  acre.  It  was  known  in  the  community 
as  the  "Poorland  Farm."  The  work  of  restoration  was 
begun  on  40  acres  of  the  farm,  which  were  covered  with  a 
growth  of  red  sorrel,  poverty  grass,  and  weeds.  The  land 
was  sour,  dead,  and  depleted  of  plant-food.  During  the  ten 
years  following  the  purchase  oj  the  farm  the  40  acres 
received  the  following  treatment: 


1903 


Fall 


1903 

" 

1904 

Spring  and 

Summer 

1904 

Fall 

1905 

Spring 

1905 

Fall 

1906 

Spring 

1907 

ft 

1908 

1909 

1909 

Fall 

1909 

« 

1910 

Spring  and 

Summer 

1911 

Spring 

1912 

Spring  and 

Summer 

1912 

Fall 

1912 

« 

1912 

Summer 

Applied  one  ton  per  acre — fine  ground  rock 

phosphate 
Plowed  for  corn  for  next  year 

Crop  of  corn 

Applied  limestone,  two  tons  per  acre 

Crop  of  soy  beans 

Crop  of  wheat 

Clover  sowed  in  wheat 

Timothy  and  more  clover 

Meadow  and  pasture 

Meadow  and  pasture 

Applied  rock  phosphate 

Plowed  for  corn 

Crop  of  corn 

Oats — volunteer  clover  appeared 


Clover  harvested 
Plowed  for  wheat 
Applied  limestone- 
Wheat  harvest 


-two  tons  per  acre 


Six  loads  per  acre  of  barnyard  manure  were  applied  once 
during  the  ten  years.  Only  39  acres  were  in  wheat,  a  lane 
having  been  fenced  off  on  one  side  of  the  field.  The  yields 
were  as  follows : 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


116 


I1/*  acres,  with  farm  manure  only,  ll*^  bushels  per  acre. 

ll/2  acres,  with  farm  manure  and  one  application  of  ground 

limestone,  15  bushels  per  acre. 

36  acres,  with  farm  manure,  two  applications  of  ground 
limestone  and  two  of  fine  ground  phosphate,  in  the  rota- 
tion as  described  above,  35!/2  bushels  per  acre. 


An  Acre  of  Wheat 
I*  nd  treated  with 
nanure.  Limestone  & 
Phosphate 


FIG.   17.      EXHIBIT   SHOWING    THE    VALUE    OF    LIME    AND 
PHOSPHATE 


Here  we  have  a  yield  of  wheat  about  double  that  of  the 
average  land  of  the  state.  The  practical  farmer  will  nat- 
urally ask,  "What  did  all  this  cost?"  The  average  annual 


SOILS  117 

cost  for  the  purchase,  delivery,  and  application  of  the  lime- 
stone and  phosphate  was  $1.75  per  acre.  In  the  ten  years, 
then,  the  total  cost  was  $17.50  per  acre.  Add  to  this  the 
original  cost,  $15  per  acre,  making  $32.50,  and  still  you  have 
pretty  cheap  land  to  produce  double  the  average  of  the 
state.  Doctor  Hopkins  puts  it  -this  way:  "The  average 
annual  investment  of  $1.75  resulted  in  an  increase  of  24 
bushels  of  wheat  (351/2 — 11%)  per  acre.  Thus  we  may  say 
that  the  application  of  these  two  natural  rocks,  or  stones, 
brought  about  the  production  in  1913  of  864  bushels  of  wheat, 
an  amount  sufficient  to  furnish  a  year's  supply  of  bread  for 
more  than  a  hundred  people." 

This  story  of  the  Poorland  Farm  is  a  remarkable  instance 
of  the  conservation  of  one  of  our  greatest  resources,  the  soil. 
Conservation  means  a  saving  of  the  resource  by  a  wise  use 
of  it.  At  the  end  of  ten  years  of  use  the  soil  on  the  "Poor- 
land  Farm"  is  producing  more  wheat  than  the  average  pro- 
duction of  the  state,  and  at  the  same  time  its  fertility  is 
increasing  year  by  year. 

Summary  of  facts  on  soil  fertility.  In  the  following  para- 
graphs the  basic  facts  of  the  Illinois  system  of  permanent 
fertility  are  summarized.  These  should  be  thoroughly  un- 
derstood and  become  the  ready  knowledge  of  every  student 
of  agriculture. 

All  agricultural  plants  are  made  of  ten  elements,  five  of 
which  are  always  provided  by  nature  in  abundance,  carbon 
.and  oxygen  taken  from  the  air,  hydrogen  from  water,  and 
iron  and  sulphur  from  the  soil.  Man  need  not  concern  him- 
self about  these  five  elements.  His  fertility  problem  is  thus 


118  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

at  once  reduced  to  a  consideration  of  the  other  elements, 
nitrogen,  potassium,  phosphorus,  calcium,  and  magnesium. 

The  Illinois  system  of  permanent  soil  fertility  recognizes 
that  there  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  air, 
and  provides  for  its  utilization  as  needed;  also  that  there  is 
an  inexhaustible  supply  of  potassium  in  the  soil  which  may 
also  be  liberated  and  utilized  as  needed.  It  also  recognizes 
that  the  supply  of  phosphorus  in  the  common  Illinois  soil 
is  very  limited,  that  phosphorus  is  contained  neither  in  the 
air  nor  in  the  rain,  and  consequently  that  phosphorus  must 
be  purchased  and  applied  to  the  soil  in  larger  amounts  than 
are  removed  in  crops  if  the  productive  power  of  the  soil  is 
to  be  increased  and  permanently  maintained.  The  Illinois 
system  also  recognizes  that  soils  should  be  sweet,  not  acid 
or  sour,  and  that  ground  limestone  will  destroy  acidity  and 
also  provide  calcium,  Avhich  is  sometimes  deficient ;  and,  finally, 
that  if  magnesium  is  also  deficient  in  the  soil,  which  is  rarely 
the  case,  it,  too,  may  be  provided,  together  with  calcium,  in 
dolomitic  limestone,  which  is  the  most  common  limestone  of 
northern  Illinois,  and  which  consists  of  the  double  carbonate 
of  calcium  and  magnesium. 

These  are  the  simple  basic  facts  which  every  man  should 
make  a  part  of  his  ready  knowledge,  and  then  proceed  to 
make  use  of  in  his  farm  practice. 

There  is  no  one  order  of  procedure  that  is  best  under  all 
conditions,  and  the  step  which  should  be  taken  first  in  one 
season  may  not  be  best  in  another  season.  However,  these 
are  minor  matters,  the  same  as  the  time  of  plowing,  the  time 


SOILS  H9 

of  planting  corn,  and  the  question  of  threshing  from  the 
stack  or  after  stacking. 

One  method  of  procedure  in  the  beginning  of  a  system  of 
permanent  soil  fertility  is  to  spread  one  ton  of  finely  ground 
rock  phosphate  per  acre  on  pasture  land  or  clover  meadow 
and  plow  it  under;  then  apply  twe  to  four  tons  of  limestone 
per  acre,  mix  it  with  the  soil  in  preparing  the  seed-bed,  sow- 
ing wheat  in  the  fall  and  clover  the  next  spring;  or  apply 
rock  phosphate  where  manure  has  been  spread,  and  plow 
both  under  for  corn;  then  apply  the  limestone  before  plant- 
ing the  corn.  Both  phosphate  and  limestone  are  then  in  the 
soil  ready  to  benefit  oats  and  clover  which  may  follow  the 
next  year  after  corn. 

After  the  first  rotation,  half  of  these  quantities  of  fer- 
tilizer once  every  four  or  five  years  is  sufficient  to  main- 
tain permanently  the  supply  of  both  limestone  and  phos- 
phorus. While  limestone  and  phosphate,  when  properly  used, 
increase  the  yields  of  wheat,  oats,  and  corn,  their  most  im- 
portant use  in  permanent  agriculture  is  to  make  possible 
the  production  of  large  yields  of  clover  and  other  legumes 
which  may  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  large  part,  either  with 
crop  residue  or  in  farm  manure,  in  order  to  provide  both 
nitrogen  and  organic  matter,  and  thus  complete  a  system  of 
permanent  soil  fertility.  Benefits  are  also  insured  from 
the  physical  improvement  of  the  soil  which  is  brought  about 
by  the  addition  both  of  organic  matter  and  of  limestone. 

The  important  question  remains,  how  much  clover  or 
manure  must  be  returned  to  the  soil  to  maintain  the  supply 


120  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

of  nitrogen.  To  replace  the  nitrogen  carried  away  in  a  60- 
bushel  crop  of  corn  would  require  nine  tons  of  manure  or 
two  and  a  quarter  tons  of  clover  per  acre.  The  important 
thing  is  to  use  the  facts  concerning  the  amount  of  nitrogen 
in  manure  and  crops,  and  return  enough  to  the  soil  to  pro- 
vide for  the  grain  crops,  having  such  yields  as  are  desirable 
or  possible  under  permanent  systems.  The  following  facts 
should  help  us  to  solve  this  problem: 

NITROGEN  SUPPLIES  AND  REQUIREMENTS 

Manure  and  produce  Nitrogen 

1      ton  average  manure 10  pounds 

1      ton  clover  hay 40 

1      ton  alfalfa  hay 50      " 

100      bu.  corn. 100      " 

3      tons  corn  stalks 48      " 

100      bu.  oats 66      " 

2%  tons  oat  straw. 31      " 

50      bu.  wheat 71      " 

2y2  tons  wheat  straw 25      " 

ON  LIVE-STOCK  FARMS 

For  the  live-stock  farmer  I  would  suggest  a  five-field  rota- 
tion system  besides  the  pasture  land.  Four  of  these  fields 
may  be  used  for  a  four-year  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  and 
clover,  while  the  fifth  field  grows  alfalfa  for  perhaps  five 
years,  after  which  the  alfalfa  field  may  be  put  into  the 
four-year  rotation,  and  one  of  the  other  fields  used  for 
alfalfa  for  another  five-year  period,  and  so  on.  If  the  manure 
is  saved  with  reasonable  care,  as  many  tons  should  be  returned 
to  the  soil  as  the  number  of  tons  of  air-dry  produce  that  are 


SOILS  121 

hauled  off.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  roots  and  stubble 
of  the  clover  and  alfalfa  contain  no  more  nitrogen  than  was 
furnished  by  the  soil  for  those  crops,  but  that  the  nitrogen 
contained  in  the  hay  harvested  may  represent  new  nitrogen 
taken  from  the  air.  With  the  information  thus  far  secured 
this  is  a  reasonable  basis  to  figure  on  for  soils  of  moderate 
productive  power. 

For  the  grain  and  hay  farmer  this  rotation  may  well  be 
modified  by  substituting  wheat  for  the  first  corn  crop,  thus 
growing  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  clover  in  the  four-year  rota- 
tion, and  alfalfa  on  the  fifth  field.  If  only  the  grain,  clover 
seed,  and  the  alfalfa  hay  are  sold,  all  stalks,  straw,  and  clover 
(except  the  seed)  being  returned  to  the  land,  the  nitrogen 
and  organic  matter  may  be  maintained  by  the  grain  and  hay 
farmer,  provided  a  cover  crop  of  clover  is  also  seeded  on  the 
wheat  ground  in  the  spring  to  be  plowed  under  late  in  the 
following  fall  or  sufficiently  early  the  next  spring  so  as  to 
get  the  land  in  good  shape  for  corn. 

Where  there  is  no  permanent  pasture  land,  the  live-stock 
farmer  may  seed  both  clover  and  timothy  with  the  oats,  and 
then  use  the  field  two  or  three  years  for  meadow  and  pas- 
ture, thus  making  a  six-field  or  seven-field  system.  With 
some  modifications,  a  system  of  mixed  farming  may  be  prac- 
ticed in  which  some  crops  are  sold  and  others  fed  to  live 
stock. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  soil  our  greatest  natural  resource? 

2.  List  the  agencies  active  in  the  formation  of  the  soil. 


122  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

3.  What  are  the  types  of  soil  of  your  local  community? 

4.  Show  how  water  may  be  a  limiting  factor  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  maximum  crops. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  active  organic  matter  in  the  soil? 

6.  Give  some  values  of  cultivation  of  soil. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  a  live  soil? 

8.  Name  the  ten  plant-food  elements  and  give  their  com- 
mon source. 

9.  Which  elements  are  most  abundant  and  which  are  likely 
to  be  deficient? 

10.  What  farm  crops  are  the  heaviest  feeders  on  soil  fer- 
tility? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  available  plant-food  in  the  soil? 

12.  How  is  plant-food  lost  from  the  soil? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  green  manure,  and  what  is  its  value  ? 

14.  Mention  all  the  values  of  organic  matter  in  soil  fer- 
tility. 

15.  What  are  the  most  economic  sources  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, and  calcium  in  systems  of  permanent  soil  fertility  ? 

16.  Compare  the  cost  of  commercial  forms  of  nitrogen 
with  the  natural  source  in  legume  crops. 

17.  Compare  the  cost  of  acid  phosphate  with  raw  rock 
phosphate. 

18.  What  is  meant  by  complete  fertilizer? 

19.  Explain  why  the  Poorland  Farm  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  chapter  was  poor  land.    What  were  the  essential 
steps  in  restoring  this  farm?     (The  answer  to  this  question 
should  be  an  explanation  of  a  system  of  permanent  soil  fer- 
tility.) 

20.  (a)  To  produce  100  pounds  of  grain  requires  about 
3  pounds  of  nitrogen,  of  which  2  pounds  are  deposited  in 
the  grain  itself  and  1  pound  in  the  straw  or  stalks. 

(b)  In  live-stock  farming  one-fourth  of  the  nitrogen  in 
the  food  consumed  is  retained  in  the  animal  products — meat, 


SOILS  123 

milk,  wool,  and  so  on — and  three-fourths  may  be  returned  to 
the  land  in  the  excrements  if  saved  without  loss. 

(c)  When  grown  on  soils  of  normal  productive  capacity, 
legumes  secure  about  two-thirds  of  their  total  nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  one-third  from  the  soil. 

(d)  Clover  and  other  biennial  or  perennial  legumes  have 
about  two-thirds  of  their  total  nitrogen  in  the  tops  and  one- 
third  in  the  roots,  while  the  roots  of  cow-peas  and  other 
annual  legumes  contain  only  about  one-tenth  of  their  total 
nitrogen. 

(e)  Hay  made  from  our  common  legumes  contains  about 
40  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  ton. 

(f )  Average  farm  manure  contains  10  pounds  of  nitrogen 
per  ton. 

Question:  How  many  tons  of  average  farm  manure  must 
be  applied  to  a  40-acre  field  in  order  to  provide  as  much 
nitrogen  as  would  be  added  to  the  soil  by  plowing  under  2 1/2 
tons  of  clover  per  acre?  Answer — 400  tons. 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Field  trip  study  of  soil  formation.    Early  in  the  study 
of  soils  the  instructor  should  take  the  class  to  places  previ- 
ously noted  where  there  are  good  examples  of  soil  formation 
by  weathering,  by  plant  action,  by  animals,  and  by  other 
agencies  discussed  in  the  chapter.     Require  the  pupils  to 
take  notes  on  observations  made. 

2.  Comparison  of  surface  soil  and  subsoil.    Go  to  a  field 
and  get  three  soil  samples  as  follows: 

(a)  Scrape   away   the   plant   growth  and   surface   trash, 
take  a  sample  of  soil  just  below  this,  and  seal  it  air-tight  in 
a  small  jar. 

(b)  Dig  or  bore  down  to  a  depth  of  six  inches  and  take 
another  sample  of  soil. 


124 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


(c)  Secure  a  third  sample  from  a  depth  of  twelve  inches 
from  the  surface. 

Return  to  the  laboratory  and  weigh  out  four  ounces  of 
each  sample  of  soil.  Spread  each  sample  in  a  shallow  pan 
and  allow  to  dry  for  two  or  more  days.  Weigh  each  sample 
again.  The  difference  between  these  weights  and  the  first 
ones  is  the  amount  of  water  in  the  soils  removed  by  evapora- 
tion. Note  the  color  of  each  sample  of  soil.  Examine  with 
hand  lens  to  see  the  size  of  soil  particles.  Heat  each  sample 
in  an  iron  spoon  until  everything  that  will  burn  has  been 
burned,  and  weigh  each  sample  again.  The  difference  between 
these  weights  and  the  last  ones  shows  approximately  the 
amount  of  organic  matter  in  each.  The  last  weights  show 
the  amounts  of  mineral  matter  in  the  soil  samples.  Tabulate 
the  results  as  follows: 


Depth  of  soil 

Color 

Amount 
of 
moisture 

Amount 
of 
organic 
matter 

Amount 
of 
mineral 
matter 

Size  of 
soil 
particles 

Type  of 
soil 

1  inch  .  . 

6  inches  

12   inches  

Repeat  this  exercise  with  samples  from  different  fields. 

3.  Physical  examination  of  soil  particles.  Pulverize  air- 
dry  samples  of  sand,  loam,  clay,  and  gravel.  Place  a  few 
grains  of  each  sample  of  soil  on  a  white  paper  and  examine 
with  hand  lens.  Tabulate  your  observations  as  follows: 


SOILS 


125 


Soil  type 

Color  — 
White,    gray, 
brown,   black 

Shape  — 
Angular  or 
round 

Condition  — 
Single  or 
compound 
particles 

Size- 
Coarse, 
medium   or 
fine 

Sand  

Loam   

Clay 

Gravel   .... 

4.  Soil  studies  for  water  content.    Go  to  the  field  and  with 
an  augur  take  samples  of  surface  soil,  subsurface,  and  sub- 
soil.    Cover  the  samples  in  air-tight  fruit  jars,  and  take  to 
the  laboratory  for  further  study.    To  determine  the  amount 
of  capillary  water  in  the  soils,  weigh  the  soil  when  taken, 
and  after  it  is  thoroughly  air-dried  weigh  again.    Note  the 
difference  as  to  capillary  water.    To  determine  the  hygroscopic 
water,  use  the  air-dried  samples  above  obtained,  note  the 
weight  made,  then  submit  the  soil  to  a  temperature  of  212° 
F.    This  drives  off  all  hygroscopic  water.    Weigh  again,  and 
the  difference  should  indicate  the  amount  of  this  form  of 
water. 

5.  Determination  of  volume,  weight,  and  specific  gravity 
of  soils.    Procure  a  given  volume  of  soil.    Weigh  and  deter- 
mine specific  gravity  by  methods  common  in  physical  labora- 
tory. 

6.  Capillary  rise  of  water.    Fill  glass  tubes,  preferably 
three  feet  in  length  and  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter,  with  air- 
dried  soil  representing  as  many  different  types  as  are  avail- 
able, such  as  sand,  clay,  loam,  etc.    Tie  a  cloth  over  the  lower 


126  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

end  of  each  tube  and  fill  with  soil.  Fasten  the  tubes  with 
one  end  lowered  in  a  vessel  of  water.  Note  from  hour  to 
hour  the  first  day,  and  for  twenty-four-hour  periods  after- 
wards, the  rate  and  height  of  the  rise  of  water  in  each  type 
of  soil. 

7.  Water-holding  capacity  of  different  soils.    Fill  tubes 
similar  to  the  ones  given  in  the  preceding  exercise  with  the 
same  types  of  soil,  and  weigh  the  soil  in  each  tube.     Sup- 
port the  tubes  so  that  water  may  be  poured  at  the  top  and 
be  permitted  to  percolate  through  the  soil.     As  soon  as  the 
water  begins  to  drip  through  the  soils,  cease  pouring  water 
upon  them  and  after  the  dripping  has  stopped  weigh  the 
tubes  to  determine  the  amount  of  water  held  in  the  soils. 
This  exercise  will  also  show  variations  in  the  rate  of  per- 
colation of  water  through  the  different  types  of  soil.    These 
facts  should  be  noted,  also,  in  recording  the  results  of  this 
exercise. 

8.  Effect  of  the  soil  mulch.    Fill  two  vessels  with  equal 
weights  of  the  same  kind  of  moist  soil.     Stir  the  surface  of 
one,  and  leave  the  other  with  the  surface  the  same.    Continue 
stirring  the  surface  from  day  to  day  and  note  the  difference 
in  the  weights  of  the  two  vessels.    Explain  the  result  of  this 
exercise. 

9.  Effects  of  lime  on  physical  condition.    Make  up  a  clay 
mud-ball  mixed  with  ordinary  rain  water,  and  a  second  ball 
mixed  with  saturated  limewater.    Place  the  two  balls  aside 
for  two  days.    Note  the  difference  with  which  the  two  balls 
may  be  crumbled.     Explain. 

10.  Effect  of  manures  on  physical  condition  of  soil.    Put 
some  finely-screened  clay  in  each  of  two  pans.    Pour  the  same 
amount  of  water  into  each  pan  and  stir  each  until  you  have 
a  thick,  well-mixed  mass.     Into  one  pan  mix  thoroughly  a 
handful  of  well-rotted  manure  or  leaf -mould.    Set  both  pans 
aside  for  the  soil  to  dry.    Which  dries  first?    Why?    When 


SOILS  127 

thoroughly  dry,  crush  the  soil  in  each  pan.  Note  the  hard- 
ness of  each  soil.  Write  two  sentences  on  the  value  of 
manures  or  other  organic  matter  to  a  soil. 

11.  Observational  study  of  the  plant-food  elements.  Have 
samples  of  some  form  of  the  ten  plant-food  elements  de- 
scribed  in   the   chapter   for   observational   work  in   these 
studies. 

12.  Testing  soils  for  acidity.    *£ring  in  samples  of  soil 
from  the  various  homes  of  the  community  to  test  for  acidity. 
Cover  a  bit  of  blue  litmus  paper  with  moist  soil,  and  after  ten 
minutes  examine  the  litmus  paper.    If  it  has  turned  red,  it 
is  an  indication  that  the  soil  is  acid.    If  hydrochloric  acid  be 
poured  upon  the  soil  and  it  effervesces,  it  is  an  indication 
that  carbonates  are  present  and  that  the  soil  does  not  need 
limestone  to  correct  the  acidity. 

13.  Soil  drainage  demonstration.    There  is  on  the  market 
now  a  very  practical  and  simple  piece  of  equipment  called 
the  soil  drainage  apparatus  which  should  be  used  in  this 
exercise  to  demonstrate  the  principles  of  drainage  and  to  illus- 
trate the  process.    Directions  will  not  be  given  here,  for  they 
accompany  the  apparatus  when  purchased. 

14.  Simple  soil  tests  for  nitrogen.    To  tell  accurately  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  in  soil  requires  elaborate  equipment,  but 
the  following  method  will  answer  for  practical  purposes  and 
does  not  require  much  apparatus. 

In  a  clean  glass  vessel  which  can  be  heated  place  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  soil  to  be  tested.  Add  fifteen  table- 
spoonfuls  of  ten  per  cent  caustic  potash  solution.  In  another 
vessel  add  fifteen  tablespoonfuls  of  water  to  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  soil.  This  is  the  control.  Heat  both  samples  to  the 
boiling  point,  and  set  them  aside  for  five  minutes.  If  at  the 
end  of  that  time  the  solution  which  contains  the  caustic  potash 
is  black  and  opaque,  the  soil  is  rich  in  nitrogen.  If  it  is  merely 
dark  and  allows  light  to  pass  through  it,  the  nitrogen  content 


128 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


of  the  soil  is  low.  If  the  solution  is  yellowish,  there  is  prac- 
tically no  nitrogen  content.  Compare  the  sample  containing 
only  water  with  the  one  containing  the  caustic  potash.  Test 
several  samples  of  soil  by  this  method,  and  record  results  as 
follows : 


Soil  samples 

Nitrogen 
content   high 

Nitrogen 
content  medium 

Nitrogen 
content  low     . 

1     

2  

3  

* 

15.  Pot  cultures  of  community  soils.  In  order  to  deter- 
mine the  limiting  plant-food  elements  hi  the  soils  of  the 
locality,  the  pot  culture  method  is  a  practical  one  to  use. 
As  many  different  systems  of  pots  may  be  employed  as  there 
are  farmers  represented  by  members  of  the  class.  For  each 
soil  type  to  be  studied  secure  ten  "four-gallon  earthen,  jars. 
Fill  each  jar  with  the  same  kind  of  soil,  taken  from  the  field 
to  be  tested.  Make  sure  that  there  is  drainage  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  jar.  Treat  the  soil  in  each  jar  as  follows: 

Jar  No.    1 — Nothing. 

"     2 — Lime    (hydrated),    12.5   grams.     Well   rotted   barnyard 
manure  (a  sufficient  amount  worked  into  the  soil  to 
cover  the  surface  about  two  or  three  inches). 
"     3 — Lime;  nitrogen  (dried  blood,  15  grams). 
"       "      4 — Lime;  phosphorus  (bone-meal,  6  grams). 

"     5 — Lime;  potassium  (potassium  sulphate,  3  grams). 
"      6 — Lime;  nitrogen;  phosphorus. 
"      "     7 — Lime;  nitrogen;  potassium. 
"      "     8 — Lime;  phosphorus;  potassium. 
"      "     9 — Lime;   nitrogen;   phosphorus;   potassium. 
"      "   10— Virgin  soil,  untreated. 


SOILS  129 

Use  the  same  amounts  and  forms  for  the  lime,  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  and  potassium  in  each  application  given  above 
as  directed  in  jars  Nos.  2,  3,  4  and  5.  The  best  way  to  incor- 
porate these  fertilizers  in  the  soil  is  to  apply  them  in  the 
form  of  solution. 

Sow  in  each  pot  equal  amounts  of  wheat  or  oats,  and  give 
the  samples  the  same  care  and  attention  regarding  light, 
temperature,  and  moisture.  Note  the  growth  of  the  plant 
from  week  to  week.  The  growth  of  the  plant  should  indicate 
the  limiting  plant-food  element  in  the  type  of  soil  under 
observation.  Record  fully  this  experiment  in  the  notebook. 

16.  Outdoor  plot  experiments  with  various  fertilizers  in 
methods  of  soil  improvement.  For  a  demonstration  plot  at 
the  school,  the  following  plan  is  feasible,  providing  labor  is 
available  and  a  long  time  policy  of  management  is  possible. 

Arrangement  and  Numbering  of  Plots 
10  11  12  13  14  15 

20  21  22  23  24  25 

30  31  32  33  34  35 

40  41  42  43  44  45 

General  suggestions:  Every  boundary  line  should  be  a 
grass  or  gravel  walk  three  feet  wide.  Every  square  should 
be  18  by  18  feet.  Before  harvesting  crops,  for  records,  each 
plot  or  square  should  be  cut  to  a  perfect  rod  square.  For 
yield  per  acre,  multiply  by  160. 

Rotations  should  be  conducted  as  follows : 

Plots  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15 — Continuous  corn  crops. 
"      20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25 — Corn  and  oats  rotation. 
"      30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  35 — Corn,  oats  and  clover  rotation. 

40,  41,  42,  43,  44,  45 — Corn,  oats,  clover  and  wheat  rotation. 


130  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

The  experiments  in  the  value  of  standard  fertilizers  could 
be  tested  in  this  way: 

Plots  10,  20,  30,  40— Nothing. 

"      11,  21,  31,  41 — Apply  farm  manure  (rate  3  or  4  tons  per  acre). 
"       12,  22,  32,  42 — Manure  and  lime  (lime,  2  tons  per  acre). 
"       13,  23,  33,  43 — Manure,  lime  and  phosphorus    (phosphorus,  1 

ton  per  acre). 
,  "      14,  24,  34,  44 — Manure,  lime,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  (kai- 

nit,  400  Ibs.  per  acre). 

"      15,  25,  35,  45 — Nothing,  and  remove  all  vegetable  matter  be- 
fore it  decays. 

Complete  records  of  the  treatment  of  the  soil  and  of  crop 
yields,  together  with  an  accurate  map  of  the  plots,  should  be 
kept. 


PART  II 
ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER  IX 

FARM  ANIMALS  AND  LIVE-STOCK  FARMING 

Live-stock  fanning.  So  important  are  farm  animals  in 
agriculture  that  whole  systems  of  farming  are  built  about  the 
live-stock  interests.  Without  discussing  the  comparative 
merits  of  live-stock  farming  and  grain  farming,  we  must  all 
agree  that  the  raising  of  live  stock  on  any  farm  has  its 
advantages  both  to  the  farm  and  to  the  public  good.  Since 
the  decrease  of  live  stock  on  the  great  ranges  of  the  West, 
and  since  general  farmers  have  commonly  stopped  raising 
cattle  because  they  were  unable  to  compete  with  the 
production  of  the  range,  the  raising  of  live  stock  has 
decreased  in  the  United  States  until  in  the  last  decade 
we  have  had  an  8  per  cent  decrease  of  live  stock 
and  a  25  per  cent  increase  of  our  population.  As 
a  public  question,  therefore,  it  is  of  prime  importance  that 
the  farms  of  the  country  begin  the  business  of  raising  more 
live  stock.  This  would,  furthermore,  work  to  the  advantage 
of  the  individual  farmer.  The  raising  of  live  stock  on  the 
farm  enables  farmers  to  utilize  profitably  much  material  that 
would  otherwise  be  of  little  value.  Moreover,  by  feeding 
his  fodder  and  grain  to  animals  he  can  get  much  more  than 

131 


132  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

by  selling  them  directly.  Besides  this  the  waste  materials 
are  returned  to  the  soil  as  fertilizer.  Another  value  of  live 
stock  on  the  farm  which  must  be  noted  is  the  satisfaction 
and  pride  which  the  business  gives  to  the  farmer,  especially 
if  he  has  good  farm,  animals,  and  this  satisfaction  is  no  small 
asset  in  successful  agriculture. 

Pure  breds  versus  scrubs.  All  these  values  of  live  stock 
on  the  farm  are  truer  if  we  have  pure-bred  stock  instead 
of  scrubs.  With  the  same  amount  of  feed  the  pure- 
bred or  well-bred  animal  converts  it  into  the  produce  desired 
more  efficiently.  The  good  cow  turns  the  food  given  her  into 
larger  and  better  quantities  of  milk;  the  good  beef  animal 
converts  the  food  into  large  quantities  of  high-grade  meat; 
the  good  hen  utilizes  her  food  in  the  production  of  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  eggs  in  the  fall  and  winter  season ;  the  good 
horse  converts  his  food  into  energy  and  endurance  at  the 
minimum  cost ;  and  so  on  through  the  whole  live-stock  list. 
The  pure-bred  animals  have  been  bred  up  so  that  the  desir- 
able characteristics  are  fixed  and  hereditary,  and  these  char- 
acteristics are  maintained  by  economical  feeding  and  care.  All 
this  implies  that  well-bred  animals  bring  more  money  on  the 
market,  and  this  fact  alone  would  justify  their  production. 
The  point  made  in  the  last  paragraph  that  farm  animals  con- 
tribute to  the  pride  of  the  farmers  in  his  vocation  is  especially 
true  of  animals  of  the  pure-bred  type.  The  production  of 
well-bred  animals  leads  the  farmer  to  improve  his  place,  prob- 
ably name  his  farm,  advertise  his  goods,  and  bring  to  his  home 
and  family  all  the  best  things  which  an  interest  in  good  farm 
animals  will  bring. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  HORSE 

Horses  and  automobiles.  Though  the  automobile  and  gas 
engine  may  seem  to  be  displacing  the  horse  in  some  in- 
stances, the  high  prices  and  great  demand  for  good  horses 
lead  us  to  believe  that  mechanical  power  is  not  a  successful 
substitute  for  the  horse  in  all  its  work,  nor  that  it  is  ever 
likely  to  be.  We  can  not  imagine  a  farm  without  horses. 
Probably  most  of  our  present  enjoyment  of  comforts  and 
conveniences  is  traceable  to  our  friend  and  servant,  the 
horse. 

There  are  about  one-fourth  as  many  horses  in  our  country 
as  there  are  people,  and  about  three-fourths  of  these  horses 
are  on  the  farm.  We  are  indebted  to  the  horses  that  do  the 
work  on  the  farms  for  the  production  of  most  of  our  food. 
Horses  are  increasing  in  esteem  and  numbers,  and  more  atten- 
tion is  being  paid  to  their  health  and  comfort.  The  great 
question  on  the  farm  today  is  how  to  plan  the  farming  opera- 
tions so  that  the  horse  labor  will  be  used  more  effectively, 
thus  reducing  the  number  of  horses  and  getting  more  efficient 
use  of  those  that  remain. 

The  work  of  horses.  Different  kinds  of  horses  are  adapted 
to  different  kinds  of  work.  One  horse  may  draw  a  buggy 
along  the  road  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  and  thus  be 

133 


134  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

valuable  as  a  roadster.  Another  may  draw  his  share  of  a 
load  of  one  ton  or  more  and  be  of  service  as  a  draft  horse. 
One  may  be  just  as  useful  to  the  owner  as  the  other,  each 
performing  the  work  to  which  he  is  best  adapted. 

With  horses  as  with  men,  work  is  the  result  of  the  action 
of  the  muscles.  About  40  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  horse 
is  muscle.  Muscles  of  locomotion  are  attached  to  tendons  and 
bones,  and  by  contracting  and  expanding  cause  the  bones  to 
move.  The  lower  part  of  the  horse's  leg  is  nearly  all  bone, 
but  the  muscles  which  move  it  are  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
leg  and  in  the  body.  The  common  idea  about  the  muscles 
of  horses  is  often  expressed,  "Long  muscles  for  speed;  short 
muscles  for  power."  In  buying  horses  to  draw  heavy  loads, 
we  look  for  large  and  heavy  muscles,  while  in  driving  horses 
we  attach  greater  importance  to  length  of  muscles.  Most  of 
the  horse's  propelling  muscles  are  in  the  hind  quarters,  and 
if  you  watch  a  horse  pulling  a  heavy  load  you  may  be  sur- 
prised to  see  that  most  of  the  work  is  being  done  with  the 
hind  legs.  It  is  very  important  that  there  be  large,  strong 
hocks;  the  croup  should  be  wide  and  straight;  quarters  and 
thighs,  deep  and  heavily  muscled;  the  legs  straight  and 
placed  squarely  under  the  body. 

It  is  very  desirable,  also,  that  a  horse  should  have  a  rather 
short  back;  that  is,  short  from  the  hips  to  the  withers.  We 
are  to  learn  that  the  hind  parts  really  push  the  rest  of  the 
body  along;  therefore  a  long  back  would  hinder  easy  and 
rapid  motion.  Of  course  the  front  parts  of  the  horse  are 
very  important ;  for  no  matter  how  strong  the  hind  quarters 
are,  if  there  is  anything  seriously  wrong  with  the  forelegs,  he 


THE  HORSE 


135 


can  not  travel  well.  The  front  knees  of  the  horse  should  be 
large,  straight,  and  angular,  and,  when  viewed  from  in  front, 
the  feet  should  be  in  line  with  the  legs. 

Appearance  of  horses.  Everyone  likes  to  see  a  beautiful 
horse,  and  even  if  a  person  has  not  studied  horses  he  knows 
an  attractive  horse  with  good  style  .and  carriage  when  he  sees 


FIG  18.     A  GOOD  FARM   TEAM 

it.  No  matter  what  kind  of  work  horses  are  kept  to  do,  it 
is  desirable  that  they  look  well.  Much  of  the  appearance 
of  horses  depends  upon  their  flesh  and  fettle  and  the  groom- 
ing they  have  had,  but  more  depends  upon  the  breeding.  We 
like  to  see  a  horse  with  proper  length  of  neck  forming  a  crest 
rising  upwards  from  the  bodj^,  with  the  head  and  nose 


136  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

pointed  a  little  forward,  the  ears  erect  and  rather  close 
together,  the  eyes  large  and  bright,  and  the  whole  body 
neat,  trim,  and  gracefully  poised. 

BREEDS  AND  TYPES  OF  HORSES 

Some  horse  history.  The  horse  was  probably  the  next 
animal  after  the  dog  to  be  domesticated.  Its  immediate  ances- 
try is  almost  a  matter  of  conjecture,  since  there  have  been 
no  really  wild  horses  within  historic  times.  Down  deep  in 
the  rocks,  geologists  have  found  remains  of  an  animal  that 
apparently  was  a  relative  of  the  horse.  This  ancient  horse 
was  smaller  than  ours,  and,  in  place  of  one  toe  and  hoof  on 
each  foot,  he  had  three  toes.  Other  remains  were  found  of 
horses  with  five  toes.  The  splint  bones,  the  slender  bones  on 
either  side  of  the  long  bone  just  below  the  knee,  are  all  that  is 
left  of  the  two  outside  toes  of  the  three-toed  horse.  The  wild 
ass  of  Abyssinia,  the  zebra,  and  quagga  of  South  America, 
are  the  modern  relatives  of  our  horses. 

The  early  use  of  the  horse  was  to  carry  man  on  his  back 
in  hunting  the  fleeter  game,  and  in  waging  war.  The  horse 
has  never  been  used  for  food  except  in  France,  though  recently 
such  use  has  been  recognized  in  New  York  and  in  other  sec- 
tions as  an  emergency  food.  As  man  became  more  civilized, 
he  found  new  uses  for  the  horse,  until  now,  in  the  twentieth 
century,  even  the  gas  engine  can  not  detract  from  the  great 
number  of  services  which  this  beast  performs.  The  various 
uses  to  which  man  has  put  the  horse  has  caused  the  different 
types  and  breeds  to  develop.  Draft  horses  are  heavy  and 


THE  HORSE  137 

strong  and  move  best  at  a  walk.  They  have  been  developed 
for  power.  Driving  horses  are  built  for  speed  and  style,  are 
quicker,  and  are  characterized  by  long,  even  strides  in  the 
run  and  by  great  powers  of  endurance. 

Thoroughbreds.  Students  of  history  will  recall  the  great 
Crusades  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  when  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Germany  sent  warriors  to  rescue  the  Holy 
Land  from  the  Saracens.  They  were  strong  men  mounted 
on  large  horses  of  great  endurance,  but  the  warriors  were 
surprised  to  find  the  Saracens  mounted  on  splendid  horses 
more  beautiful  than  any  they  had  ever  seen,  the  agile  Ara- 
bian horse,  bred  for  a  thousand  years  for  speed  and  endur- 
ance. The  Englishmen  took  some  of  these  beautiful  Arabian 
horses  back  home  with  them,  and,  by  breeding  them  with 
the  best  of  the  old  English  horses,  developed  the  Thorough- 
breds. Barley  Arabia,  Gadolphus  Arabian,  and  Byrley  Turk 
are  three  Archian  stallions  that  figure  in  the  development  of 
the  Thoroughbred.  They  were  used  in  tournaments  or  mock 
battles,  in  fox  hunting,  and  also  in  horse  racing.  Only  the 
pedigreed  horses  .could  enter  the  races,  and  hence  they  became 
known  as  Thoroughbreds.  Thoroughbred  is  the  proper  name 
for  the  English  running  horse,  the  oldest  established  breed 
in  the  world,  and  this  horse  became  the  foundation  for  all 
American  trotters  and  saddle  horses. 

Draft  horses.  The  Arabian  horses  which  the  Frenchmen 
took  back  from  the  Crusades  were  bred  with  the  common 
farm  horses  of  France,  and  the  modern  Percheron  is  the 
result.  Though  as  heavy  as  any  other  draft  horse,  he  has 
good  action  inherited  from  the  early  Arabian  stock.  The 


138  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Belgian  was  developed  from  the  old  heavy  horses  of  Flanders. 
The  Shire  and  Clydesdale  were  developed  from  the  old  stock 
of  heavy  horses  of  the  British  Isles  and  the  horses  of  Flanders. 
England  early  developed  the  coach  horse,  lighter  than  the 
draft  horse  but  heavier  than  the  Thoroughbred.  The  modern 
Cleveland  bay  is  the  descendant  of  this  coach  horse. 

The  farm  horse.     Of  all  the  types  of  horses,  the  draft 
horse  of  from  .1600  to  2200  pounds  is  the  one  the  farmer 


FIG.   19.     A  PERCHERON  STALLION 

maintains  most  successfully.  This  is  because  the  weight  and 
strength  of  the  draft  horses  enable  them  to  do  the  general 
work  of  the  farm,  and  because  they  may  be  put  on  the  mar- 
ket with  less  training  than  other  classes  of  horses  require. 


THE  HORSE 


139 


FIG.   20.     A  SHIRE   STALLION 

The  well-to-do  farmer  often  keeps  carriage  or  road  horses. 
These  are  a  kind  of  coach  horse  fifteen  or  sixteen  hands  high, 
of  beautiful  form,  and  even  temperament. 

The  Percheron.  The  Percheron  draft  horse  is  a  native  of 
La  Perch  a,  France.  It  is  noted  for  its  massive  size,  good 
quality,  endurance,  and  action.  Stallions  usually  weigh  from 
1700  to  2000  pounds.  They  range  from  fifteen  and  one-half 
to  seventeen  hands  high.  The  color  is  variable,  though  black 
and  dapple  gray  predominate.  This  is  the  most  common 
breed  of  heavy  draft  horse  in  the  United  States. 

The  Shire.  The  Shire  draft  horse  was  developed  in  Eng- 
land about  150  years  ago.  It  is  commonly  known  as  the  old- 
est breed  of  "cart  horse"  (this  term  is  also  applied  to  Bel- 


140 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


gians),  and  for  heavy  draft  it  is  unexcelled.  Shires  often 
make  the  heaviest  of  all  draft  horses,  sometimes  weighing 
2300  pounds.  Bay  or  brown  is  the  preferred  color,  with 
white  on  the  forehead  and  on  the  legs  below  the  knees  and 
hocks.  Grays  and  blacks  are  common.  Long  hair  on  the 
back  of  the  cannons  is  a  breed  characteristic. 


FIG.   21.     A  CLYDESDALE  MARE 


The  Clydesdale.  The  Clydesdale  draft  horse  originated 
in  Scotland.  It  is  an  active  breed,  not  so  massive  as  the 
Percheron  nor  so  heavy  as  the  Shire.  The  weight  varies  from 
1600  to  2000  pounds.  Bay  or  brown  with  white  on  the  fore- 
head and  on  the  legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks  is  the  most 


THE  HORSE  141 


common  marking,  though  there  are  many  blacks  and  grays. 
Like  the  Shire,  the  long  hair  on  the  back  of  the  cannons  is 
a  breed  characteristic. 

The  Belgian.  The  Belgian  breed  has  been  developed  to  a 
high  standard  through  the  great  interest  shown  in  horse 
breeding  by  the  people  of  Belgium jand  the  assistance  given 
by  their  government.  Unfortunately,  in  pushing  through 
Belgium  in  the  present  war,  the  Germans  have  almost 
totally  destroyed  the  horse  breeding  establishments  of  these 
brave  and  courageous  people.  Before  the  war,  however, 
many  of  these  horses  were  brought  to  the  United  States 
each  year  and  thus  the  breed  will  be  saved.  The  Belgian 
horses  are  the  blockiest  of  all  draft  breeds.  They  are  not 
as  large  as  the  Shire,  but  being  so  thick  fleshed  are  equally 
as  heavy. 

Grading  up  of  horses.  The  term  " grading  up"  applies 
to  the  practice  of  mating  common  bred  mares  to  pure-bred 
stallions,  or  the  reverse,  thus  producing  half-breeds.  Half- 
breeds  mated  back  to  pure  breeds  of  the  same  breed  will 
increase  the  pure  blood  percentage  in  the  offspring  from  one- 
half  to  three-fourths,  and  the  next  such  cross  to  seven-eighths, 
and  so  on  for  each  successive  generation.  A  constructive 
grading-up  process  for  the  average  farm  community  would 
be  by  the  male  line  of  pure-bred  ancestors. 

If  there  are  no  enterprising,  progressive  men  in  the  locality 
who  are  standing  pure-bred,  registered  draft  stallions,  the 
first  step  would  be  to  organize  a  community  association  to 
secure  co-operatively  the  desired  sires,  and  to  promote  the 
horse  breeding  industry.  After  a  careful  study  of  the  mar- 


142  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

ket.  a  class  should  be  decided  upon  that  is  having  a  brisk 
demand  in  the  sale  ring,  and  a  brood  mare  should  be  selected 
of  that  type  and  conformation.  This  will  gradually  eliminate 
for  breeding  purposes  all  those  specimens  described  by  the 
horseman  as  unsound,  " stork"  legged,  "wasp"  waisted, 
1 1  washy ' '  coupled,  and  of  faulty  action.  Those  chosen  should 
not  only  be  sound  and  of  the  desired  conformation,  according 
to  breed  and  type,  but  should  show  their  sex  characteristics 
in  head  and  neck,  having  expressiopi  mild,  forequarters  fine 
but  well  formed,  chest  deep,  barrel  roomy,  and  hips  wide 
apart,  indicating  ability  to  exercise  the  maternal  functions. 

By  mating  these  "hand-picked,"  sound,  suitable  grade 
mares  with  sound,  muscular,  pure-bred,  registered  stallions, 
the  result  cannot  help  but  be  promising.  Continue  to  use  the 
best  obtainable  pure-bred  stallions  of  the  same  breed  on  the 
mares,  and  thus  profit  by  the  accumulation  of  the  blood  of 
the  desired  breed  in  the  grading-up  process.  To  mate  a 
draft  mare  of  the  farm  chunk  type  to  a  high«  strung,  standard- 
bred,  2:10  trotter  with  plenty  of  stamina  or  "class"  may 
result  in  a  fairly  good  foal  from  the  cross,  but  one  which 
does  not  fall  under  any  of  the  established  market  classes 
and  which,  would  have  to  sell  at  a  sacrifice.  Not  only  will 
that  particular  cross  be  unprofitable,  but  further  progress 
in  grading-up  will  be  stopped  because  the  preponderance  of 
blood  of  the  recognized  breed  has  been  lost.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  grade  mare  is  bred  to  a  stallion  of  the  same  breed 
used  in  her  grading-up,  her  filly  foal  will  be  one  step  nearer 
pure  blood  than  her  dam?  and,  if  the  process  is  continued, 
further  progress  in  establishing  purity  of  blood  and  the  other 


THE  HORSE 

desired   characteristics   which   are   associated  with  it  will 
result. 

The  mating  of  mares  to  pure-bred  draft  stallions  is  not  all 
there  is  in  securing  uniformity  of  type  and  conformation  in 
the  offspring ;  the  feed,  shelter,  care,  and  handling  are  impor- 
tant items  in  producing  good  specimens  of  any  class  of 

live  stock. 

JUDGING  THE  HORSE 

Points  in  judging  the  horse.  The  heavy  draft  horse  is  one 
of  the  most  profitable  classes  of  horses  the  farmer  can  raise. 
In  judging  the  draft  horse,  as  in  judging  all  farm  animals, 
these  points  are  first  noted:  size,  soundness,  conformation, 
quality,  action,  and  condition.  In  noting  conformation,  five 
main  points  must  be  observed  closely:  general  appearance 
or  form,  head  and  neck,  fore  quarters,  hind  quarters,  and 
body.  These  heads  are  subdivided  into  several  minor  points 
noted  in  the  score-card,  and  one  must  study  them  carefully 
in  order  to  be  able  to  judge  horses. 

General  appearance.  To  judge  the  general  appearance 
of  a  horse,  view  him  from  both  sides  and  ends  at  a  distance 
of  about  20  feet.  Ascertain  in  your  mind  the  height  and 
weight,  and  observe  closely  the  general  form  and  conforma- 
tion. The  draft  horse  should  be  broad,  smooth,  and  mas- 
sive, with  all  bony  projections  well  covered  with  flesh. 
The  skin  must  be  soft,  the  hair  smooth  and  fine.  Care- 
fully observe  the  action  of  the  horse.  The  stride  should 
be  straight,  regular,  long,  elastic,  and  fast.  The  trot  should 
be  straight,  springy,  and  free.  While  watching  all  the  above 
qualities,  the  temper  should  be  observed;  the  expression  of 


144  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  eye  and  the  carriage  of  the  ears  very  often  indicate  the 
disposition  of  the  animal. 

Head  and  neck.  The  head  must  be  clean  cut,  well  carried ; 
the  profile  straight  and  in  good  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
body.  The  eyes  and  ears  should  be  examined  with  great  care. 
Back  the  horse  into  a  dark  shed  with  the  head  to  the  light 
and  place  the  hand  over  the  eyes  for  about  thirty  seconds. 
Then  remove  the  hand  and  watch  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  the  pupils.  The  pupils  should  be  of  the  same 
color,  elliptical  in  shape,  and  should  respond  readily  to  the 
light  by  expanding  and  contracting.  Examine  the  top  of  the 
head  for  any  enlargement  such  as  Poll  evil.  The  ears  should 
be  medium  in  size,  carried  well  forward,  and  alert.  The  jaws 
should  be  clean,  uniform,  and  straight. 

Fore  quarters.  The  shoulders  are  especially  important  in 
a  good  draft  horse.  They  should  be  smoothly  muscled,  mod- 
erately sloping,  and  extending  well  into  the  back.  The  arms 
should  be  short  and  heavily  muscled,  while  the  forearm  should 
be  longer  and,  from  a  side  view,  wide  and  well  muscled.  The 
knee  seen  from  the  front  should  be  wide  and  straight.  The 
cannons  should  be  straight  and  short,  and  the  tendons  back 
of  them  strong  and  well  set  back  from  the  bone.  The  pas- 
terns should  be  moderately  sloping,  showing  great  strength. 
The  feet  should  be  equal  in  size  and  the  horn  thick  and  dense 
and  not  inclined  to  be  brittle.  The  toe  should  be  straight,  not 
turned  in  or  out,  the  soles  convex,  the  bars  strong,  the  frog 
long  and  elastic,  and  the  heels  wide  and  well  sprung. 

The  body.  The  body  includes  the  withers,  chest,  ribs, 
back,  and  loins.  The  withers  must  be  broad  and  muscled  to 


THE  HORSE  145 

the  top,  the  chest  deep  and  round.  The  breast  should  be 
wide  and  carried  low,  giving  a  large  girth;  the  ribs  long 
and  well  sprung.  The  back  should  be  short,  broad,  and 
well  muscled.  The  loins  should  be  short,  wide,  and  flat, 
and  the  underline  should  be  long  and  moderately  curved. 
The  flanks  full  and  even,  denoting  a  good  feeder. 

Hind  quarters.  The  hind  quarters  include  more  points  to 
be  noted  than  any  other  part  of  the  animal.  The  thighs 
should  be  broad,  smooth,  and  level;  the  croup  moderately 
drooping,  long,  and  heavily  muscled;  the  tail  attached  high 
and  well  carried ;  the  thigh  deep,  short,  and  heavily  muscled ; 
the  quarter  (between  the  thighs)  plump  and  full;  the  stifle 
clean,  round,  and  well  fleshed;  the  gaskins  long,  wide,  and 
smooth;  the  hocks,  viewed  from  in  front,  broad,  clean,  and 
flat,  and  strongly  supported  below.  The  cannons  are  a  little 
wider  and  longer  than  those  in  front;  the  pasterns  and  toes 
a  little  less  sloping  and  shorter  than  those  in  the  front  legs. 
The  feet  are  less  rounding,  but  otherwise  they  should  corre- 
spond exactly  with  those  in  the  front. 

THE  FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES 

Feeding  the  horse.  Considerable  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  feeding  and  care  of  the  horse  for  the  sake  of  his 
health  and  comfort.  The  horse  has  a  small  stomach  and, 
therefore,  should  not  be  fed  a  large  amount  of  food  at  one 
time;  but  that  which  is  given  must  be  nutritious.  Nearly 
all  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs  are  the  result  of  improper 
feeding.  Mouldy  or  musty  foods  should  never  be  fed.  A 


146  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

number  of  serious  digestive  disorders  among  horses  often 
result  from  feeding  corn  in  mouldy  condition.  A  rather 
recent  trouble  among  horses  is  forage  poisoning,  originat- 
ing from  mouldy  or  other  fungous  growths  eaten  by  the 
horse. 

Rations  for  horses.  Corn  and  timothy  hay  alone  are  not 
good  feeding  rations  for  working  horses.  In  this  feed  there 
is  not  enough  protein  food  to  keep  the  horse  in  the  best  con- 
dition. Oats  and  corn,  with  mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay 
for  roughage,  make  a  fairly  good  ration  for  the  horse.  Alfalfa 
hay,  if  well  cured,  is  good  and  a  great  favorite  with  horses; 
with  corn  and  oats  it  makes  a  good  ration  for  the  working 
horse.  Corn  may  be  fed  in  the  ear,  shelled,  cracked,  or 
chopped.  The  chopped  corn  is  too  fine,  however,  to  be  well 
digested.  Ear  corn  and  oats,  half  and  half,  make  a  good  food 
commonly  used  on  the  farm.  Patent  stock  foods  are  not  to 
be  used  under  any  circumstances.  Horses  should  be  fed 
three  times  a  day,  as  follows:  The  grain  ration  divided 
into  three  equal  parts  and  fed  morning,  noon,  and  night. 
One-half  the  hay  should  be  fed  at  night  and  one-fourth  at 
morning  and  at  noon.  In  general  about  one  pound  of  con- 
centrate (grain)  and  one  pound  of  roughage  (hay)  should 
be  fed  per  one  hundred  pounds  live  weight  of  animal.  A 
horse  doing  heavy  work  should  receive  from  one  and  one- 
fourth  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  concentrate  and  one 
pound  of  roughage  per  one  hundred  pounds  live  weight. 

A  fifteen-hundred-pound  horse  at  heavy  work  should  receive, 
if  fed  corn,  oats  in  ratio  of  two  to  one,  and  alfalfa  hay — • 
fourteen  pounds  of  corn  (twenty  ears)  and  six  pounds  of 


THE  HORSE  147 


oats  (one  and  one-fourth  gallons)  and  fifteen  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay  per  day. 

Salt  should  be  given  to  the  work  horses  once  or  twice  a 
week. 

Watering  the  horse.  The  water  horses  drink  does  not 
lodge  in  the  stomach  but  passes  on  to  the  large  colon  of  the 
intestine,  except  when  the  stomach  is  full.  When  horses  are 
very  thirsty  they  immerse  their  whole  nose  in  the  water  to 
prevent  drawing  in  the  air.  Horses,  like  all  farm  animals, 
prefer  and  ought  to  have  pure  water.  A  good  practice  is 
to  water  immediately  before  and  after  each  feeding,  and,  if 
the  animals  are  to  be  left  in  the  stall  over  night,  to  water 
again  after  their  hay  has  been  cleaned  up. 

Stables  for  horses.  Stables  should  be  wide  and  large 
enough  to  hold  at  least  two  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  every 
pound  of  the  horse's  weight.  The  stables  should  be  well 
lighted;  the  horse's  head  should  not  face  the  light.  Air 
should  not  come  in  as  draughts,  but  the  stable  should  be 
well  ventilated.  The  floor  of  the  stalls,  should  be  higher  in 
front  than  behind  to  allow  good  drainage. 

POINTS  IN  GOOD  HORSEMANSHIP 

Training  colts.  To  be  able  to  break  and  train  a  colt  is  an 
accomplishment  which  every  farm  boy  should  desire  to  acquire. 
Handling  and  caring  for  animals  has  a  good  influence  upon 
the  education  and  character  of  boys  and  girls.  "The  end  to 
be  accomplished  in  training  a  colt,"  says  Dean  Davenport 
in  his  'Animal  Studies/  "is  to  teach  courage,  obedience, 


148  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

and  good  workmanship  to  this  wild  colt  that  was  never  off 
the  farm,  never  saw  the  cars  perhaps,  and  that  never  knew 
the  feeling  of  halter  or  harness  or  experienced  reprimand  or 
control  of  any  kind." 

One  can  do  little  toward  educating  a  colt  until  it  can  be 
haltered  and  taught  to  lead  well.  The  halter  should  be 
strong  and  plenty  of  time  should  be  given  to  teach  the  colt 
its  first  lesson  in  restraint.  Teach  it  to  lead  gradually  by 
requiring  it  to  follow  you  for  food.  After  a  colt  has  been 
taught  to  lead,  gradually  accustom  it  to  things  that  might 
frighten  horses,  as  umbrellas,  automobiles,  blankets,  paper, 
noises,  etc.  Be  kind  and  speak  in  a  reassuring  voice  during 
these  trials  of  the  young  horse.  The  hardest  lesson  of  all 
is  to  get  the  young  horse  to  drive  in  harness.  Do  not  hitch 
him  at  first,  but  teach  him  to  back  or  turn  to  the  right  or 
left,  etc.,  as  you  hold  the  lines.  Give  the  colt  the  word  that 
goes  with  every  action  he  makes.  Do  not  extend  the  lessons 
in  breaking  over  one  hour  at  a  time.  After  the  colt  has 
submitted  to  be  driven,  hitch  him  to  a  cart.  A  draft  colt 
can  best  be  "broken"  by  hitching  him  with  a  quiet,  gentle 
mare. 

Then  a  new  line  of  good  horsemanship  is  needed,  a  few 
points  of  which  we  can  merely  mention  here.  Hold  a  tight 
rein  and  keep  cool.  Let  the  colt  understand  that  "whoa" 
means  to  stop;  "back"  means  to  back;  "steady"  means  to 
go  slowly;  and  "get  up"  means  to  go  on.  Do  not  use  unnec- 
essary and  contradictory  words  such  as  "whoa  back"  and 
"whoa  haw,"  and  never  use  profanity.  Do  not  overwork  or 
overdrive  the  horse.  He  is  flesh  and  blood  and  not  a  machine. 


THE  HORSE  149 

It  is  best  not  to  use  the  high  over-check  rein.  The  over-draw 
check  is  used  for  single  harness,  and  the  side-check  or  bear- 
ing rein  for  double  harness  work  horses. 

Keeping*  the  horse  comfortable.  One  point  in  good  horse- 
manship is  to  see  that  the  horse  is.  properly  shod.  Every 
owner  should  understand  how  a  Ahorse  should  be  shod,  so 
that  he  can  insist  on  the  blacksmith  shoeing  him  properly. 
Harness  should  be  well  fitted  to  the  size  of  the  horse.  If  the 
collar  is  too  large  or  too  small,  sore  necks  will  result,  as  well 
as  other  troubles.  The  harness  should  be  kept  well  cleaned 
and  oiled,  not  only  to  prevent  rapid  wearing  out,  but  to  give 
greater  comfort  to  the  horse.  Never  put  a  frosty  bit  into 
the  horse's  mouth.  Warm  it  by  breathing  on  it  or  holding 
it  in  the  hand.  The  horse  should  never  be  left  facing  the 
cold  wind,  and  should  always  be  blanketed  when  left  to  stand 
in  the  cold.  Examine  the  horse's  teeth  frequently.  A  horse 
can  not  eat  properly  when  his  teeth  are  poor.  Use  a  curry 
comb  and  brush  freely  upon  the  horse,  especially  the  brush. 

Laws  of  the  road.  A  good  driver  observes  and  knows  all 
the  courtesies  of  the  road.  He  turns  to  the  right  and  gives 
half  of  the  road  to  those  he  meets,  and  all  the  road,  if  pos- 
sible, to  a  loaded  wagon.  He  permits  anyone  to  pass  who 
wishes  to  drive  faster  than  he,  and,  if  he  passes  another,  he 
drives  far  enough  ahead  to  avoid  annoying  him  by  the  dust. 
Recent  laws  have  been  made  in  different  states  regarding 
the  automobile  and  its  rules  in  regard  to  horse  traffic  along 
the  road,  but  a  gentleman  chauffeur  and  a  good  horseman 
need  have  no  trouble  about  the  laws  of  the  road. 


150  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

THE  HORSE'S  PLEA 

Please  give  us  water  often. 

Please  give  us  a  moment's  rest  on  the  way  up  the  hill. 

Please  do  not  overload  us  and  make  us  pull  too  long  in 
deep  mud ;  we  are  doing  our  best. 

Please  do  not  use  the  whip ;  it  is  seldom  necessary. 

Please  remember  we  will  respond  to  a  word  as  well  as  to  a 
blow. 

Please  look  out  for  our  health  and  do  not  work  us  when  we 
are  sick. 

Please  see  that  we  are  properly  shod. 

Please  be  sure  that  we  have  enough  to  eat  and  that  we  are 
fed  regularly. 

Please  see  that  the  harness  fits  and  does  not  chafe  sore  or 
tender  spots. 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE  AND  WHAT  TO  Do  FOR  THEM 

Symptoms  of  illness.  There  are  many  symptoms  by  which 
a  farmer  may  detect  when  there  is  something  wrong  with  his 
horses.  The  temperature,  the  pulse  rate,  and  the  rate  of 
breathing  may  be  of  assistance  to  the  farmer  in  examining 
the  horse  to  determine  whether  anything  is  wrong  with  his 
health.  Most  farmers  after  a  little  experience  can  tell  whether 
or  not  fever  is  present  by  placing  the  hand  behind  the  fore- 
leg, between  the  hind  legs,  or  in  the  horse's  mouth. 

In  particular  cases  of  sickness  considerable  importance  is 
attached  to  the  attitude  and  action  of  the  horse.  In  most 


THE  HORSE  151 

cases  it  is  advisable  to  call  in  a  veterinarian  when  the  horse 
is  ill,  but  the  farmer  should  know  the  symptoms  of  some  of 
the  common  diseases  and  should  know  what  to  do  until  the 
doctor  comes. 

Colic.  The  horse  is  subject  to  various  forms  of  colic, 
some  of  which  are  quite  dangerous  and  require  immediate 
treatment.  Wind  colic  and  cramp  colic  are  most  common. 
In  wind  colic  the  horse  appears  dull,  falls  to  the  ground,  and 
breathes  hard.  Pain  is  continuous.  Charcoal  given  to  the 
horse  often  relieves  pain.  In  cramp  colic  pain  begins  sud- 
denly and  is  often  severe.  It  may  be  the  result  of  indiges- 
tion. The  horse  looks  back  at  his  side,  paws  the  ground,  lies 
down,  rolls,  and  gets  up  frequently.  Whiskey  and  Jamaica 
ginger  or  camphor  may  give  relief.  In  all  cases  of  colic  the 
first  thing  to  do  is  to  give  the  horse  a  good  physic.  One  or 
two  quarts  of  raw  linseed  oil  with  one  or  two  ounces  of  tur- 
pentine is  practical  and  best  for  this  purpose.  All  farmers 
should  have  on  hand  about  two  or  three  ounces  of  fluid  extract 
of  wild  yam,  sometimes  called  colic  root.  Give  the  horse  one 
teaspoonful  every  half  hour  until  relieved. 

Founder.  This  disease  is  known  to  veterinarians  as  lamin- 
itis.  It  is  an  inflammation  of  the  horn  secreting  structure, 
usually  showing  digestive  disorder  or  overwork.  The  dis- 
ease is  painful.  The  front  feet  are  the  most  common  seat  of 
the  disease,  although  any  one  or  all  of  them  may  be  affected. 
In  case  the  front  feet  are  affected,  they  are  placed  in  advance 
of  the  body  and  the  hind  feet  thrust  away  under  it,  appear- 
ing as  if  the  whole  body  were  sore,  though  only  the  feet  are 
affected.  When  all  four  feet  are  inflamed,  the  horse  can 


152 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


hardly  walk.  Varying  with  the  degree  of  the  disease,  the 
connection  between  the  secretive  and  horny  portion  of  the 
toe  is  more  or  less  obliterated.  The  form  of  the  hoof  changes 
and  the  heel  appears  higher  and  more  contracted.  Rings 
form  on  the  walls  of  the  hoof,  coming  close  together  at  the 
toe;  the  hoof  is  hot  and  feverish.  The  sensitive  part  of  the 
toe,  being  exposed  by  the  degeneration  of  the  horny  struc- 
ture, is  likely  to  develop  horn  tumors  which  are  very  painful 
and  may  result  in  chronic  disorder.  Early  treatment  by  a 
veterinary  surgeon  may  cut  short  the  attack  and  prevent 
changes  in  the  form  and  condition  of  the  hoof.  A  physic 
of  Epsom  salts,  one  or  two  pounds,  should  be  given.  The 
horse  should  be  led  to  a  stream  of  running  water  and  left  to 
stand  in  it  at  least  two  hours ;  and  then  one  hour  out.  Alter- 
nate this  process  several  times  for  a  whole  day.  If  this  can 
not  be  done,  use  sawed-off  barrels  or  tubs  and  stand  the  horse 
in  cold  water  as  described  above. 

Lameness.  On  account  of  the  unusual  exposure  to  strains, 
the  horse  is  subject  to  more  forms  of  lameness  than  any  of 
our  domestic  animals.  Lameness  may  be  due  to  strains  of 
the  muscles,  ligaments,  or  the  joint  capsules  in  any  part  of 
the  leg,  shoulders,  or  pelvic  girdles.  Usually  it  is  a  very  dif- 
ficult matter  to  indicate  the  exact  cause  of  lameness  in  a 
horse,  and  we  can  not  describe  the  veterinarian's  system  of 
ascertaining  this.  Some  of  the  forms  of  lameness  may  be 
mentioned  very  briefly: 

a.  Splints  are  the  bony  enlargements  which  lie  between 
the  knees  and  fetlock  joints  on  the  inside  of  the  legs.  These 
may  become  a  cause  of  lameness. 


THE  HORSE  153 

b.  Ringbone  is  a  term  applied  to  a  bony  growth  around 
the  bone  just  above  the  coronet  of  the  hoof.     This  trouble 
is  more  serious  than  splints,  but  it  is  possible  both  to  pre- 
vent and  to  cure  it  by  methods  which  can  not  be  discussed 
here. 

c.  Bone  spavin  is  a  bony  outgrowth  of  the  hock  joint. 
It  interferes  in  a  serious  measure  with  the  usefulness  of  the 
horse.     After   spavin  has  become   established   there   is   not 
much  hope  of  cure.    A  month  or  two  of  rest  in  the  pasture 
is  the  best  medicine  for  a  spavined  horse. 

d.  In  addition  to  these  bone  diseases,  lameness  may  be 
caused  by  various  troubles  about  the  joints,  such  as  blood 
spavin,  straining  of  the  joints,  or  by  various  foot  troubles. 

Wounds.  Too  little  attention  is  given  to  the  treatment  of 
wounds  in  farm  animals.  Lockjaw  and  blood-poison  are  likely 
to  result  from  the  neglect  of  wounds.  Shallow  wounds  may 
become  exceedingly  sore  and  cause  much  discomfort  to  the 
animals.  When  cut  surfaces  are  kept  perfectly  clean,  the 
wound  heals  much  more  rapidly,  but  this  is  not  always  pos- 
sible with  farm  animals.  Never  sew  stitches  in  the  horse's 
flesh.  The  wound  should  always  be  treated  and  bandaged  if 
possible.  Applying  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  covering 
the  surface  with  iodof orm,  if  the  wound  can  not  be  bandaged, 
is  a  treatment  which  will  prevent  the  entrance  of  germs  and 
flies.  The  application  of  camphor  to  wounds  also  prevents 
the  entrance  of  flies.  It  should  be  said  in  this  connection  that 
if  farmers  were  more  careful  about  the  use  of  barbed-wire 
fences  about  horse  pastures  there  would  be  less  trouble  from 
wounds  among  farm  horses. 


154  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Moon  blindness.  This  is  the  name  often  given  to  an  in- 
flammation of  the  interior  of  the  eye.  The  trouble  first  appears 
as  a  flow  of  tears  with  inflammation.  This  occurs  with  the 
regularity  of  lunar  phases ;  hence  the  term  moon  blindness, 
though  the  moon  has  nothing  to  do  with  it.  From  five  to 
seven  attacks  usually  result  in  the  lens  of  the  eye  becoming 
opaque  and  the  curtain  of  the  iris  growing  fast  to  the  lens, 
causing  blindness.  When  the  symptoms  first  appear,  a  small 
blister  should  be  made  an  inch  or  two  under  the  eye,  and  the 
eyes  washed  in  cold  water  or  a  solution  of  boric  acid,  one 
teaspoonful  in  one  pound  of  water.  The  disease  is  caused 
by  damp,  cold  stables,  wet,  undrained  soils,  rank,  damp  fod- 
der, lack  of  sunshine,  indigestible  food,  and  from  hereditary 
tendencies;  not  from  "wolf  teeth,"  as  some  people  believe. 
Of  course,  the  removal  of  these  causes  is  the  first  step  in 
controlling  this  disease. 

THE  AGE  OF  THE  HORSE  IN  VERSE 

"Two  middle  nippers  you  behold 
Before  the  colt  is  two  weeks  old; 
Before  eight  weeks  two  more  will  come; 
Eight  months,  the  "corners"  cut  the  gum. 

At  two,  the  middle  nippers  drop; 
At  three,  the  second  pair  can't  stop; 
When  four  years  old  the  third  pair  goes; 
At  five,  a  full  new  set  he  shows. 

The  deep  black  spots  will  pass  from  view, 
At  six  years,  from  the  middle  two; 
The  second  pair  at  seven  years; 
At  eight,  the  spots  each  "corner"  clears. 


THE  HORSE  155 


From  middle  nippers,  upper  jaw, 
At  nine  the  black  spots  will  withdraw; 
The  second  pair  at  ten  are  white; 
Eleven  finds  the  "corners"  light. 

As  time  goes  on  the  horsemen  know 
The  oval  teeth  three-sided  grow; 
They  longer  get,  project  before, 
Till  twenty,  when  we  know  no  more." 


NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Have  you  read  the  story  of  "Black  Beauty"? 

2.  Who  said,  "My  kingdom  for  a  horse"? 

3.  Have  you  read  Longfellow's  poem  called  the  "Belle 
of  Atri"? 

4.  List  some  of  the  uses  of  horse  to  man. 

5.  Name  the  different  types  and  breeds  of  horses. 

6.  How  does  a  horse  move  its  head  when  biting  off  grass? 
Does  a  cow  do  the  same? 

7.  Can  you  tell  the  age  of  a  horse  by  his  teeth?    How? 

8.  How  does  a  horse  lie  down?    Get  up?    How  does  this 
differ  from  the  cow? 

9.  What  blemishes  on  a  horse  would  spoil  its  sale  if  you 
were  the  proposed  buyer? 

10.  How  many  men  would  equal  the  power  of  one  horse? 

11.  Describe  the  action  of  a  horse's  legs  in  trotting,  pac- 
ing, and  galloping. 

12.  Bring  some  interesting  article  about  horses  and  read 
it  before  the  class.    Briefly  review  this  article  in  your  note- 
book. 

13.  Sketch  the  diagram  of  the  horse's  body  and  write  in 
the  names  of  the  parts  as  numbered  on  the  diagram. 

14.  What  humane  work  among  horses  do  you  think  is  most 
needed  in  your  community? 


156 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


15.  What  improvement  in  horses  is  most  needed  in  your 
community  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Report  of  home  types  and  breeds  of  horses.  Fill  out 
the  following  table  as  a  report  of  the  horses  owned  on  the 
home  farm: 


Type,  Breed 
and  Color 

Weight 

Age 

No.  of 
Horses 

General 
Condition 

2.  Study  of  external  parts  of  the  horse.    Before  a  chart 
of  a  horse,  or,  better  still,  before  a  live  horse,  drill  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  in  locating  and  naming  all  the  most  impor- 
tant external  parts  used  in  judging  the  horse  according  to 
the  score-card.    Every  student  should  be  familiar  with  the 
names  and  locations  of  the  parts,  and  with  the  common  blem- 
ishes found  on  the  horse's  body. 

3.  Comparative  judging1.    Drill  the  students  in  placing  a 
ring  of  horses,  ranking  them  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  conformation,  quality,  and  condition.    Let  each  student 
be  able  to  give  the  reason  for  his  ranking  of  the  horses  in 
the  judging  ring. 

4.  The  use  of  the  score-card.    Let  each  student  use  the 


THE  HORSE  157 

score-card  designated  by  the  State  Experiment  Station  and 
mark  the  points  of  the  horse  according  to  his  best  judgment. 

5.  Harnessing  a  horse.    Have  a  horse  and  buggy  brought 
to  the  schoolyard  and  let  every  two  members  of  the  class, 
working  together,  harness  and  unharness  the  horse  and  hitch 
it  again  into  the  shafts  ready  for  driving.    This  may  be  made 
more  interesting  by  assuming  the.  nature  of  a   contest,   if 
desired.     Practice  in  harnessing  and  hitching  a  team  to  a 
wagon  is  a  good  exercise.     (A  home  project  in  cleaning  and 
oiling  a  set  of  harness  is  advised.) 

6.  Reports  from  experiences.    Let  each  pupil  choose  one 
of  the  following  topics  and  report  some  of  his  own  observa- 
tions or  experiences  for  a  written  or  an. oral  recitation: 

(a)  Breaking  a  Colt. 

(b)  Choosing  a  Horse. 

(c)  The  Horse  Barn  at  Home. 

(d)  Some  Laws  of  the  Road. 

(e)  How  We  Care  for  Our  Horses. 

(f )  A  History  and  Record  of  Some  Noted  Horse. 

(g)  An  Observation  or  Experience  in  Connection  with  a 
Severe  Case  of  Sickness  in  Horses  the  Student  Has  Had. 

7.  Determination  of  feed  rations. 

A.  A  table  of  foods  (amounts  in  100  pounds). 

Carbohydrates 

Foods                                  Dry  matter  Protein  and  fats 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

Clover    85.  6.6  39.1 

Wheat  bran 89.  12.  45.9 

Corn   89.  8.  74.5 

Timothy  hay 86.8  2.8  46.5 

B.  Problem.    What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  following 
ration :  15  pounds  clover  hay,  6  pounds  wheat  bran,  4  pounds 
corn  ?    Is  this  a  good  ration  for  a  working  horse  ? 


158  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Note :  A  nutritive  ratio  is  the  proportion  of  protein  to  car- 
bohydrate and  fat,  and  should  be  about  1 :6  for  a  working 
horse. 

C.  Feeding   standards   for  horses,   per   day,   per   1,000 
pounds  live  weight. 

Carbohydrate 

Dry  matter  Protein  and  fat 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

Horse  at  light  work 20  1.5  10.5 

Horse  at  medium  work...         24  2.0  12.4 

Horse  at  heavy  work 26  2.5  15.2 

D.  Determine  the  nutritive  ratio  and  value  as  compared 
with  the  ration  given  in  the  paragraph  above  on  feeding. 

8.  Plan  of  a  barn.    Draw  a  floor  plan  for  a  horse  barn 
on  a  farm,  providing  places  for  harness,  grain,  box  stalls,  and 
vehicles. 

9.  Some  live-stock  statistics.    Consult  the  last  Yearbook 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  list  the  number  and 
value  of  horses  in  the  United  States. 

10.  Some  feeding  determinations.    Determine  the  weight 
of  one  quart  of  corn,  oats,  and  bran.    Determine  the  size  of 
a  forkful  of  hay  that  will  average  five  pounds. 


CHAPTER  XI 

DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 

"The  summer  days  grew  cool  and  late; 

He  went  for  the  cows  when  the  work  was  done, 
But  down  the  lane  as  he  opened  the  gate 
He  saw  them  coming,  one  by  one." 

The  most  important  things  to  learn  in>  connection  with  the 
farm  dairy  cattle  are  how  to  increase  the  production  of  milk, 
both  in  quantity  and  quality ;  how  to  fix  these  desirable  char- 
acteristics in  the  cows,  and  how  to  feed  such  rations  as  will 
give  the  cow  the  best  advantage  of  her  breeding. 

Home  of  dairy  breeds.  In  the  English  Channel  just  off  the 
coast  of  Prance  are  four  little  islands  that  belong  to  Eng- 
land. They  are  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney,  and  Stark,  in 
order  of  size.  Jersey  is  just  twenty  miles  across,  and  Stark 
is  practically  uninhabited.  The  isles  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
have  each  given  us  a  breed  of  dairy  cattle  named  after  their 
native  island  and  bred  pure  for  many  generations.  It  has 
long  been  against  the  law  of  the  islands  to  land  any  live 
animals  there  except  for  immediate  slaughter.  From  Scot- 
land came  the  Ayrshire  breed.  In  the  eastern  part  of  our 
country  the  Ayrshires  have  long  been  known  and  admired. 
From  Holland  came  the  Holstein-Friesian,  the  breed  noted 
for  the  quantity  or  large  flow  of  milk.  In  size  they  are  the 
largest  dairy  breed.  In  America  this  breed  is  very  popular 
for  milk  production  to  supply  cities. 

159 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 


161 


DAIRY  BREEDS 


Name 

Origin 

Color 

Approxi- 
mate 
weight 

Milk, 
quantity  and 
quality 

Distinguishing 
characteristics 

Jersey 

Jersey  Isle 

Fawn,    shad- 

750 to  900 

Low  average 

High  percentage 

ing   to    dark. 

Ibs. 

yield,  high  in 

butter    fat.      Yel- 

<k_ 

butter  fat. 

low  product,  per- 

sistent   milker. 

Guernsey 

Guernsey 

Reddish   yel- 

1000 Ibs. 

Average  yield 

Production   of 

Isle 

low    with 

not   high. 

highly  colored 

white  mark- 

Rich  in  but- 

cream and  butter. 

ings. 

ter  fat. 

Holstein- 

Holland 

Black  and 

1200  Ibs. 

Abundant. 

High   milk  yield. 

Friesian 

white,    not 

Lowest  in 

Vigorous      consti- 

blended. 

butter  fat  av- 

tution.    Good 

erage. 

breeding    quality. 

Quiet   disposition. 

Ayrshire 

Scotland 

Spotted  red 

900  to  1100 

Large  average 

Less  angular 

and  white, 

Ibs. 

yield,  medium 

dairy-type.  Horns 

not  blended. 

butter  fat. 

turn  upward,  ud- 

der development 

excellent. 

Brown 

Switzer- 

BVown  in 

1200  Ibs. 

^arge  average 

Vitality  and  good 

Swiss 

land 

varying 

yield,    good 

breeding.       Quiet 

shades. 

butter  fat  av- 

and   gentle. 

erage. 

Large  calves. 

Shorthorn 

England 

Red,  white, 

1400  to 

Good    average 

Larger  than  any 

(Dual- 

red  and  white 

1600  Ibe. 

milk  yield  and 

dairy  breed. 

purpose 

or  roan. 

butter  fat 

More  numerous 

breed) 

content. 

and  widely  dis- 

tributed.    Good 

breed  calves. 

162 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


General  characteristics  of  dairy  cattle.  The  form  or  shape 
of  farm  animals  shows  their  special  adaptation  for  the  use 
to  which  they  are  put.  Good  specimens  of  animals  that  are 
what  we  call  well-bred  always  belong  to  a  distinct  type. 
Among  farm  cattle  we  distinguish  three  types :  the  beef -type, 
the  dual-purpose-type,  and  the  dairy-type. 


FIG.   23.      TILLY  ALCARTRA 

Our  first  impression  upon  comparing  the  dairy-type  with 
the  others  is  that  the  dairy  cow  shows  her  ribs  and  muscles 
plainly.  Her  body  is  deep  and  angular.  Seen  from  in  front, 
she  seems  narrow;  her  breast  is  thin  and  her  neck  long  and 
slender.  Seen  from  behind,  she  is  wide  and  has  a  large  udder 
between  thin,  muscular  legs.  Looking  down  over  her  back, 
you  will  notice  that  she  is  broad  in  the  middle  and  narrow 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS  163 

in  front.  Such  a  wedge  form  is  characteristic  of  the  dairy- 
type. 

The  udder.  The  milk  gland  or  udder  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  dairy  cow.  When  it  is  of  good  shape 
it  extends  well  forward  and  behind,  with  four  teats  uni- 
formly placed,  wide  apart,  and  large  enough  for  conven- 
ience in  milking.  On  the  under  side  of  the  body  in  front 
of  the  udder  are  large  milk  veins,  one  on  each  side,  twist- 
ing along  and  finally  disappearing  in  holes  called  the  milk 
wells.  These  veins  carry  large  quantities  of  blood  from 
the  udder.  The  cow's  udder  is  a  wonderful  mechanism,  and 
is .  of  great  capacity.  Good  cows  give  from  six  to  ten  times 
their  weight  in  milk  in  a  year.  A  world's  record  cow,  Tilly 
Alcartra,  a  Hoist ein,  gave  30,452.6  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 

Points  in  judging1  quality.  Stockmen  often  speak  of  high- 
class  animals  as  having  good  quality.  This  is  shown  in  a 
fine  silky  coat  of  hair,  in  a  soft,  elastic  skin,  in  fine  bones, 
and  in  neat  joints.  When  an  animal  has  quality  you  can 
easily  take  the  skin  in  the  hand  between  the  thumb  and 
fingers  and  pull -it  out  from  the  side  of  the  body.  It  is 
pliable  and  will  roll  up  in  the  hand  easily.  If  the  cow 
lacks  quality  or  is  not  in  good  condition,  her  skin  will  be 
thick  and  tight  and  is  not  easily  taken  in  the  hand.  The 
dairy  cow  of  quality  is  likely  to  be  a  better  producer  of 
milk  than  one  in  which  quality  is  lacking. 

In  all  judging  work  in  public-school  agriculture  the 
points  to  note  and  emphasize  are  the  form,  quality,  and 
condition  of  the  animal.  When  a  farmer  wants  to  "buy 
a  dairy  cow,  the  question  naturally  confronts  him,  "How 


164  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

shall  I  be  able  to  judge  a  good  dairy  cow?"  In  doing 
this  he  must  know  the  proper  form  of  the  head,  neck,  fore 
quarters,  body,  and  hind  quarters  of  the  dairy-type.  He 
must  know  what  good  quality  consists  in,  and  be  able  to 
know  at  sight  whether  the  animal  is  in  good  condition  or  is 
capable  of  being  put  into  good  condition,  depending  upon 
health  and  breeding.  All  points  in  judging  may  be  consid- 
ered under  the  following  heads :  constitution,  temperament, 
capacity,  milking  organs,  and  mammary  development. 

Hind  quarters.  In  judging  the  form  of  a  dairy  cow,  the 
hind  quarters  are  most  important.  The  hips  should  be  far 
apart  and  level.  The  rump  should  be  long  and  wide,  with 
plenty  of  hip  room.  The  pin  bones  should  be  prominent  and 
wide  apart.  The  tail  should  be  long  and  slim,  with  hair  in 
the  switch  fine.  The  udder  should  be  high  and  full  behind, 
long,  and  extending  full  and  far  in  front.  The  teats  should 
be  large  and  evenly  placed.  The  milk  veins  should  be  large, 
long,  and  very  crooked.  "When  large  they  indicate  much 
blood  coming  from  the  udder,  showing  large  secretion  capac- 
ity. 

The  body.  The  chest  should  be  deep  and  low,  and  the 
barrel  large,  showing  digestive  capacity,  with  ribs  well 
sprung  and  wide  apart.  The  back  should  be  lean,  straight, 
open-jointed,  and  flexible. 

Fore  quarters.  The  fore  quarters  are  not  so  important. 
The  whithers  should  be  lean  and  thin,  the  shoulders  light  and 
very  oblique,  and  the  legs  straight,  short,  and  fine. 

Head  and  neck.  The  muzzle  should  be  clean  cut;  the 
mouth,  the  nostrils,  and  the  eyes  should  be  large.  The  eyes 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS  165 

should  have  a  mild  expression.  The  face  should  be  clean, 
long,  dished,  and  expressive  of  maternal  qualities  and  good 
disposition.  The  forehead  should  be  broad.  Horns  should 
be  even  in  length  and  of  fine  texture.  The  neck  should  be 
thin,  of  medium  length;  the  throat  clean;  the  dulap  thin 
and  of  very  fine  textu-re.  A  cow  with  a  thick,  coarse  head 
and  neck  does  not  designate  good  dairy  quality. 

The  first  practice  in  judging  dairy  cows  should  be  com- 
parative judging,  ranking  the  cattle  in  the  ring  in  the  order 
of  their  standing  based  upon  the  points,  mentioned  above. 
All  points  in  judging  should  be  related  to  improved  produc- 
tion and  breeding. 

Products  of  the  dairy.  Milk,  butter,  and  cheese  are  the 
products  of  the  dairy.  Every  day  we  use  some  form  of  these 
products  in  our  homes.  The  Yearbook  of  1910  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  gives  the  following  statistics  on 
dairy  products: 

Pounds 

International  trade  in  butter  exports 640,000,000 

International  trade  ,in  cheese  exports 509,000,000 

United  States  export  in  butter 3,000,000 

United  States  export  in  cheese 3,000,000 

United  States  export  in  milk 13,000,000 

By  comparing  the  value  of  the  dairy  products  of  the  country 
with  those  of  other  agricultural  lines,  we  note  that  the  dairy 
product  ranks  fourth,  with  corn,  live  stock,  and  hay  ranking 
in  order  as  named. 

Milk.  Milk  is  composed  of  six  constituents  which  are 
of  prime  importance.  The  following  table  gives  the  con- 
stituents of  the  milk  with  the  percentage  of  each: 


166  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Per  cent 

Water    87. 

Fat   4. 

Casein    2.6 

Albumin    7 

Sugar  5. 

Ash 7 

More  important  for  our  lesson  than  the  composition  is  the 
question  of  the  care  and  handling  of  milk.  The  most  impor- 
tant item  in  the  handling  of  milk  is  cleanliness.  Probably 
no  other  kind  of  food  is  more  difficult  to  keep  clean  than 
milk.  Thousands  of  bacteria  from  the  air  get  into  the  milk, 
some  of  which  cause  the  milk  to  sour,  while  others  may  be 
the  germs  of  consumption,  typhoid  fever,  and  other  dan- 
gerous human  diseases.  The  following  precautions  in  the 
care  of  milk  should  be  taken  by  all  who  furnish  us  with  this 
valuable  food: 

First,  the  milker  should  have  clean  clothes  and  clean  hands, 
and  should  never  wet  his  hands  with,  the  milk.  Second,  the 
cow  should  be  clean,  the  udder  and  teats  should  be  wiped  with 
a  moist  cloth,  and  the  stables  well  lighted,  aired,  and  cleaned. 
Third,  every  vessel  used  in  the  handling  of  the  milk  should 
be  scalded  and  scrupulously  cleaned.  Fourth,  the  cows  should 
not  be  milked  where  the  air  is  full  of  dust  of  any  kind. 
Fifth,  the  surface  of  the  milk  should  not  be  left  exposed  to 
the  air  of  the  cellar,  kitchen,  or  any  place  where  dust 
or  bacteria  may  fall  into  it.  Sixth,  the  milk  should  be  cooled 
quickly  and  kept  cold. 

Butter.  Butter  is  composed  largely  of  fat,  so  we  speak 
of  the  fat  of  milk  as  butter  fat.  Fat,  although  most  valuable 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS  167 

on  the  market,  is  not  the  most  important  food  constituent  of 
milk.  Butter  fat  is  composed  mainly  of  nine  different  fats. 
On  account  of  the  importance  of  the  fat,  it  is  often  made  the 
basis  of  payment  for  milk.  By  means  of  the  Babcock  tester 
the  amount  of  butter  fat  in  milk  can  be  accurately  deter- 
mined. This  amount  ranges  from" 2  per  cent  to  6  per  cent. 
Cream  contains  most  of  the  butter  fat  in  milk,  and  it  thus 
becomes  an  important  item  to  separate  the  cream  from  the 
milk  in  order  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  butter  fat.  Experi- 
ments have  shown  that  from  the  three  methods  of  cream 
separation  the  following  results  were  obtained : 

Butter  Lost  in  Skim-Milk  from  1  Cow  in  1  Year 

Hand  separator Loss  of  butter     2.6  Ibs. 

Shallow  pan Loss  of  butter  60.     Ibs. 

Water  dilution Loss  of  butter  70.     Ibs. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  a  good  hand  cream  separator  is  a 
profitable  piece  of  apparatus  to  have  on  the  farm  keeping 
three  or  more  cows. 

Cheese.  We  learned  that  casein  is  one  of  the  constituents 
of  milk.  It  contains  protein,  one  of  the  most  important  food 
elements  of  milk.  This  casein  is  separated  as  curd  by  the 
souring  of  milk,  but  the  separation  may  also  be  made  by 
adding  cheese-making  rennet.  The  curd  formed  by  the  ren- 
net is  then  heated,  the  whey  drained  off,  and  later  run 
through  a  mill  and  cut  into  small  pieces,  salted,  pressed 
to  form,  and  finally  cured  in  a  cool  room  before  it  is  ready 
for  the  market. 

Cheese  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious  of  foods  and  should  be 
more  largely  used  in  our  diet. 


168  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

PROBLEMS  SHOWING  COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  Cows 

1.  A  farmer  owns  six  cows,  Bess,   Spot,  Brindle,  Boss, 
Kate,  and  Red. 

Bess    gives  22  Ibs.  milk  daily,  testing  3.8  per  cent  butter  fat 

Spot    gives  15  Ibs.  milk  daily,  testing  4.2  per  cent  butter  fat 

Brindle gives  30  Ibs.  milk  daily,  testing  3.5  per  cent  butter  fat 

Boss    ......gives  30  Ibs.  milk  daily,  testing  3.0  per  cent  butter  fat 

Kate    gives  14  Ibs.  milk  daily,  testing  3.2  per  cent  butter  fat 

Red   gives  24  Ibs.  milk  daily,  testing  5.2  per  cent  butter  fat 

Figure  out  the  yield  of  each  cow,  and  classify  the  cows  in 
order  of  production. 

2.  Three  herds  of  ten  cows  each  were  compared.     The 
Holstein-Friesians  averaged  30  pounds  of  milk  each  daily; 
the  Jerseys  averaged  25  pounds  each  daily;  the  scrub  herd, 
10  pounds  each  daily.     The  Holsteins'  milk  tests  3.4  per 
cent  butter  fat,  the  Jerseys'  5.1  per  cent,  and  the  scrubs'  3.5 
per  cent.    Which  is  the  most  profitable  herd?    With  butter 
fat  at  30  cents  per  pound,  what  is  the  average  monthly 
receipt  per  cow  of  each  herd? 

Remarkable  difference  in  dairy  cows.  *Rose  was  an  Illi- 
nois Experiment  Station  cow  with  a  record  that  made  her 
famous.  Her  total  production  for  twelve  years  was  87,102.3 
pounds  of  milk — 43%  tons;  10,248  gallons;  1,281  cans  of 
eight  gallons  each;  106  wagonloads  of  twelve  cans  each.  Al- 
lowing three  rods  for  a  team,  this  would  make  a  procession 
one  mile  long,  six  carloads,  making  a  good  milk  train. 

Butter  for  twelve  years,  4,318.36  pounds,  worth  at  present 
prices  25  cents  per  pound,  $1,079.59. 

*From  Circular  No.  106,  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS       169 

Skim-milk  for  twelve  years,  72,585  pounds,  worth  15  cents 
per  100  pounds,  $108.88. 

Total  receipts  for  twelve  years  (not  reckoning  calves  or 
manure),  $1,188.47,  or  $99.04  per  year. 

Just  think  what  the  receipts  of  a  dairyman  would  be  whose 
herd  consisted  of  twenty-five  cows  of  this  kind — $2,500  per 
year,  not  counting  calves  and  manure. 

Kose  was  bought  for  $50  when  4  years  of  age.  She  had 
only  ordinary  treatment,  no  better  than  she  would  have  re- 
ceived on  a  good  dairy  farm.  She  had  not  been  pampered 
or  fed  to  produce  the  utmost  amount  of  milk. 

Remarkable  as  was  the  performance  of  this  grade  cow, 
she  was  heralded  not  as  standing  apart  in  unapproachable 
splendor,  but  as  a  great  leader  of  the  thousands  of  money- 
making  cows  in  Illinois. 

In  the  same  herd  Queen  became  conspicuous  for  a  very 
different  reason.  She  had  six  years'  record  of  152  pounds 
butter  fat  per  year,  and,  in  exact  comparison  for  one  year, 
Rose  made  more,  than  three  times  as  much  butter  fat  as 
Queen  from  exactly  the  same  feed  both  in  kinds  and  amount, 
and  with  the  same  care. 

Quite  unsuspected  these  Queens  have  everywhere  honey- 
combed dairy  profits.  All  of  them  are  "star  boarders."  The 
more  of  them  a  dairyman  keeps,  the  poorer  he  is.  The  way 
to  find  out — the  only  sure  way — is  to  weigh  and  test  the  milk 
of  each  cow. 

The  world's  record  milk  production  for  one  year  is  held 
by  the  following  individuals  of  their  respective  breeds : 


170 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Ayrshire Garclaugh's  May  Mischief 25329     Ibs.  of  milk. 

Jersey Passport .19695     Ibs.  of  milk. 

Guernsey Murnie  Cowan 24008     Ibs.  of  milk. 

Holstein Lutoke  Vale  Corcopia 31334.2  Ibs.  of  milk. 

The  world's  record  fat  production  for  one  year  is  held  by 
the  following  individuals  of  their  respective  breeds : 

Ayrshire Lillie  of  Willomoore 965.6    Ibs.  of  fat. 

Jersey Sophia  the  19th  of  Hood  Farm 999.2     Ibs.  of  fat. 

Guernsey Murnie  Cowan 1098       Ibs.  of  fat. 

Holstein Duchess  Skylark  Ornsby 1205.09  Ibs.  of  fat. 


PIG.  24.     A  FINE  TYPE  OF  GUERNSEY 

Fanner  boys  and  calves.  A  boy  on  the  farm  has  not  had 
his  full  experience  if  he  has  not  owned  and  cared  for  a  calf. 
Many  a  farmer  boy  has  had  his  interest  in  agriculture  aroused 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS  171 

and  made  permanent  by  a  share  in  the  live  stock  of  the  farm, 
and  this  share  may  begin  with  the  ownership  of  a  calf. 

Calves  of  dairy  cows.  In  order  to  have  the  best  milkers 
among  dairy  cows,  it  is  best  to  take  the  calves  from  them 
when  they  have  nursed  once  after  birth.  These  calves  should 
then  be  fed  the  mother's  milk  by  hand.  Feed  the  calf  about 
two  quarts  of  its  mother's  milk  three  times  a  day  for  two 
weeks,  then  feed  three  quarts  twice  a  day.  Another  way  to 
estimate  the  amount  is  to  feed  about  one  pound  of  milk  to 
ten  pounds  of  live  weight  at  first,  increasing  to  three  pounds 
of  milk  to  ten  pounds  of  live  weight.  After  about  a  month 
keep  whole  oats  in  a  box  before  the  calf  all  the  time.  In 
addition  to  the  milk,  feed  shelled  corn  with  clover  hay;  this 
will  make  a  good  ration  and  cause  the  calf  to  grow. 

Calves  of  the  beef-type  should  be  allowed  to  run  with  the 
mother,  for  such  cows  are  not  kept  for  their  milk  and  the 
calves  will  do  better  on  natural  feeding. 

Sheltering1  and  caring  for  calves.  The  most  important 
item  in  caring  for  young  calves  is  the  feeding  and  sheltering. 
Calves  are  fed  either  to  bring  to  maturity  as  milk  cows,  to 
fatten  for  veal,  or  to  push  for  the  market  as  fat  steers.  To 
make  finished  beeves  for  the  market  by  August,  calves  weigh- 
ing from  400  to  500  pounds,  they  must  be  pushed  along  rap- 
idly. The  following  ration  has  been  successful:  Nine  to 
12  pounds  corn,  3-6  pounds  good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  8-10 
pounds  silage,  daily.  If  one  or  two  pounds  of  cottonseed 
meal  are  added  to  this  ration,  the  calves  may  be  brought  to 
900  pounds  or  more  in  eight  or  nine  months.  The  main 
thing  in  feeding,  however,  is  to  be  governed  largely  by  the 


172  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

appetite  of  the  calves  and  by  common  sense.  Calves  that 
are  to  be  fattened  for  veal  should  in  most  cases  be  fed  on 
new  milk.  Sweet  skimmed  milk  furnishes  a  good  basis  for 
calf  feeding.  To  this  may  be  added  a  porridge  of  corn-meal 
or  flaxseed  meal  with  some  fine  wheat  hay  or  grass.  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass  is  a  splendid  balanced  ration  for  growing 
calves. 

FEEDING  AND  CARING  FOB  CATTLE 

Feeding1  compounds.  The  animal  body  contains  widely 
different  tissues:  bones,  flesh,  brains,  hair,  etc.,  and  the  body 
tissues  and  the  animal  products  contain  many  complex  com- 
pounds. The  food  that  the  animal  gets  must  contain  all  the 
elements  that  make  up  the  animal  body  and  its  products.  For 
the  purpose  of  study,  these  foods  may  be  included  under  the 
following  heads:  water,  ash  or  mineral  matter,  protein,  car- 
bohydrates, and  fats. 

Purpose  of  feeding1.  We  feed  cattle  to  repair  the  broken- 
down  tissues  in  their  bodies,  to  make  them  grow,  to  keep 
their  bodies  warm,  to  produce  energy  for  work,  and  to  make 
special  products  such  as  meat  and  milk.  The  young  growing 
animals  require  sufficient  food  to  keep  their  bodies  in  repair, 
to  keep  them  warm,  and  to  make  them  grow  steadily. 

Foods  and  their  special  uses.  It  need  merely  be  men- 
tioned that  water  is  indispensable  to  animal  life,  and  that 
cattle  should  be  given  free  access  to  an  abundance  of  water. 
Ash  or  mineral  matter  is  essential  to  the  health  of  cattle. 
The  most  abundant  mineral  food  is  phosphate  of  lime.  Min- 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS       173 

eral  foods  are  found  in  water,  in  soil,  and  in  the  ordinary 
rations  fed  to  live  stock.  Protein  is  the  flesh-forming  food. 
It  is  used  for  the  production  of  flesh,  tendons,  and  blood, 
and  forms  the  casein  and  albumin  of  milk.  Protein  is  ob- 
tained largely  in  such  feeds  as  clover  hay,  alfalfa,  oats,  wheat, 
bran,  and  middlings,  cottonseed  an$  oil  meal.  Carbohydrates 
and  fats  furnish  material  for  the  production  of  body  heat, 
muscular  energy,  body  fat,  and  milk  fat.  Corn  and  timothy 
hay  are  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  fat.  In  addition  to  these 
foods,  cattle  need  a  certain  amount  of  crude  fiber.  This 
includes  such  bulky  foods  as  straw,  fodder,  and  hay,  which 
contain  a  large  amount  of  indigestible  material.  This  crude 
fiber  acts  as  a  stimulant  to  the  digestive  organs,  giving  them 
work  to  do  in  disposing  of  it. 

Balanced  rations  and  nutritive  ratio.  A  balanced  ration 
is  one  that  has  the  proper  amounts  of  protein,  carbohydrate, 
and  fat  to  secure  the  animal  product  desired,  and  to  keep 
the  animal  in  a  healthful  condition.  The  nutritive  ratio  is 
the  proportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  and  fat.  To  find 
the  nutritive  ratio  of  any  ration,  divide  the  total  amount 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  the  ration  by  the  total  amount 

of  protein,  thus,  c  +p21/4  f.  The  balanced  ration  usually  given 
for  a  dairy  cow  is  one  in  which  there  is  about  six  times  as 
much  carbohydrates  and  fat  as  protein.  The  nutritive  ratio 
in  this  case  would  be  1 :6.  To  feed  cattle  wisely,  one  should 
know  the  total  amount  of  food  needed  daily,  the  composi- 
tion of  the  food,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  required  for  the 
special  purpose  for  which  the  feeding  is  done. 

Cattle  feeds.    The  number  of  materials  available  for  cat- 


174  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

tie  feeding  has  increased  in  marked  degree  during  the  past 
few  years.  The  foodstuffs  of  vegetable  origin  may  be  included 
under  four  classes :  forage  crops,  roots  and  tubers,  seeds  and 
grains,  and  by-products  of  various  kinds.  Silage  is  a  com- 
paratively recent  food  in  this  country.  It  is  the  name  given 
to  a  green  fodder  preserved  in  the  silo.* 

Indian  corn  is  cut  at  about  the  time  when  three-fourths  of 
the  kernels  are  dented,  then  ground — stalk,  kaf,  ear,  and 
all — and  stowed  away  in  the  silo.  This  makes  a  most  valu- 
able and  economical  food  for  dairy  cattle,  especially  if  fed 
with  alfalfa. 

A  good  balanced  ration  for  a  milch  cow  is  8  pounds  of 
hay,  30  pounds  of  silage,  and  8  pounds  of  grain,  daily.  If 
the  silage  is  not  obtainable,  then  the  following  is  a  good 
substitute:  20  pounds  of  hay,  6  pounds  of  grain,  3  pounds 
of  dried  beets.  Another  ration  might  be  3  pounds  corn-meal, 
2.5  pounds  bran,  1  pound  cottonseed  meal,  15  pounds  clover 
hay,  7.5  pounds  corn  stover.  This  ration  contains  22.8  pounds 
dry  matter,  2.08 'pounds  protein,  and  12.5  pounds  carbohy- 
drate and  fat,  and  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :6. 

Good  rations  for  meat  production  in  cattle  are  as  fol- 
lows :  8  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  12  pounds  corn-meal,  5  pounds 
ground  oats;  or,  6  pounds  clover  hay,  12  pounds  corn,  10 
pounds  silage,  2  pounds  cottonseed  meal.  The  amounts  given 
above  are  figured  for  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  Of  course, 
it  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  all  this  detail  of  figures  that 
the  farmer  is  to  weigh  out  every  day  the  rations  for  each 


*Silos  are  tall,  round  structures  used  for  preserving  green  fodder 
for  winter  use. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 


175 


animal.  After  these  rations  are  weighed  out  a  few  times, 
giving  half  in  the  morning  and  half  in  the  evening,  the  feeder 
will  soon  learn  to  estimate  the  amounts  necessary  to  make 
up  the  ration. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  most  needed  improvements  in  the  dairy 
cattle  on  the  average  home  farm? 

2.  Where  are  the  original  homes  of  the  dairy  breeds? 

3.  Name  the  typical  dairy  breeds. 

4.  Explain  the  wedge  form  of  the  dairy  cow. 

5.  What  adaptations  in  the  structure  of  the  dairy  cow 
contribute  to  milk  production? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  quality  in  cattle? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  condition? 

8.  Describe  the  appearance  and  record  of  the  three  rec- 
ord dairy  cows. 

9.  What  is  the  most  important  food  constituent  of  milk? 
10.    What  is  a  good  ration  for  baby  beeves? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.    Report  of  home  dairy  cattle.    Let  the  pupils  make 
a  report  upon  the  dairy  cattle  at  their  home,  as  follows : 


Breeds   of   cows 


No.  of  cows 


Selling  value 


Average   daily   milk 
production 


176 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Compare  the  reports  of  each  pupil.    Account  for  differences 
in  selling  value  and  milk  yield. 

2.    Table  of  stock  foods  with  percentage  of  digestible 
nutrients. 


Food 

Dry   matter 
per  100  Ibs. 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 
and    fat 

Silage 

209 

9 

1287 

Corn    

89.1 

7.9 

77. 

Clover  hay  

84.7 

7.6 

16.37 

Cottonseed  meal  

91.5 

38.1 

43 

By  using  the  above  table,  figure  out  the  nutritive  ratio  for 
the  rations  given  for  dairy  and  beef  cattle  in  the  above  para- 
graphs. 

Note — By  referring  to  tables  for  all  stock  foods  the  nutri- 
tive ratio  for  other  feeding  rations  is  determined. 

3.  Reports  on  home  feeding.    Let  the  pupils  report  upon 
the  kinds  of  stock  feeds  used  at  home.    Give  the  amounts  of 
grain  and  roughage  fed  each  cow,  and  determine  whether  it 
is  a  balanced  ration. 

4.  Observational  study  of  external  parts  of  the  dairy 
cow.    With  a  cow  or  a  large  chart  before  the  class,  drill 
in  the  naming  of  the  external  parts  of  the  cow  until  they 
are  familiar  to  every  member  of  the  class. 

5.  Use  of  the  score-card  for  dairy  cattle.    Bring  from 
one  to  three  dairy  cows  to  the  schoolyard  or  let  the  class  go 
to  a  dairy  herd.    Use  the  score-card  recommended  by  the 
State  Experiment  Station  in  judging  each  cow,  after  sev- 
eral lessons  in  placing  the  animals  in  order  of  their  rank 


DAIRY  CATTLE  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 


177 


FIG.   25.      DIAGRAM   SHOWING  EXTERNAL   PARTS   OF  A  COW 

1.  Muzzle.     2.  Jaw.     3.     Face.     4.  Fore-head.     5.  Throat.     6.  Neck. 
7.  Withers.     8.  Shoulder.     9.  Chest.     10.  Back.     11.  Ribs.     12.  Loin. 
13.  Rump.     14.  Rump.     15.  Hips.     16.  Tail.     17.  Thigh.     18.  Udder. 
1    19.  Belly.     20.  Milk  Veins. 

according  to  form,  condition,  and  quality,  as  mentioned  in 
a  previous  paragraph.  Have  each  pupil  make  a  copy  of  the 
score-card  in  his  notebook,  and  when  the  cow  is  before  the 
class  let  each  pupil  mark  the  points  as  he  thinks  proper. 

6.  Daily  milk  records.  Pupils  should  make  out  a  daily 
milk  record  sheet  as  follows,  and  keep  a  record  of  the  cows 
at  their  homes  for  at  least  seven  days. 


Name  of  cow 


Morning 
pounds 


Evening 
pounds 


Total 
pounds 


178  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Pupils  should  bring  these  records  to  school  and  compare 
reports. 

7.  The  Babcock  test.    If  possible,  the  school  should  pro- 
cure a  Babcock  milk  tester  and  test  the  milk  of  cows  at  the 
homes  of  the  pupils.    It  is  not  necessary  to  give  details  for 
the  use  of  the  tester  here,  for  directions  accompany  every 
machine.    A  good  four-bottle  Babcock  tester  may  be  obtained 
for  ten  or  twelve  dollars. 

8.  Report  on  the  calves  owned  by  pupils.    Let  the  pupils 
each  write  a  paper  about  the  calves  at  the  home  farm,  using 
the  following  outline : 

(a)  Number  and  breed  of  calves. 

(b)  Size  and  age. 

(c)  Ownership. 

(d)  Method  of  feeding. 

(e)  Shelter  provided. 

(f }   Successes  and  failures  in  raising, 
(g)  Purpose  for  which  kept. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SWINE 

SWINE  ON  THE  FARM 

Importance  of  hog  raising.  Since  swine  multiply  rapidly 
and  breed  at  an  earlier  age  than  other  farm  animals,  they  are 
considered  one  of  the  most  profitable  kinds  of  live  stock 
which  the  farmer  can  produce.  The  prices  of  hogs  vary  so 
often  and  so  much  upon  the  great  markets  that  the  supply 
throughout  the  country  is  constantly  shifting.  The  man 
who  makes  money  out  of  hogs  is  the  man  who  produces 
hogs  each  year  and  makes  them  a  part  of  his  permanent 
farm  business.  A  few  hogs  might  be  kept  profitably  on 
many  farms  where  they  do  not  find  a  place  today.  The 
hog  utilizes  much  of  the  by-products  of  the  farm  which 
might  otherwise  be  wasted.  In  cattle  feed  lots,  in  dairy 
districts,  in  general  farming  operations,  and,  in  fact,  wher- 
ever man  produces  agricultural  products,  the  hog  may  be 
used  to  convert  the  waste  products  into  an  economical  meat 
supply.  Experience  should  enable  a  farmer  to  determine 
just  how  many  hogs  he  can  raise  on  his  farm  to  advantage. 

Some  pig  history.  The  peccary  of  Central  America  is  the 
American  relative  of  the  pig;  at  least  it  resembles  the  pig 
in  habit  and  appearance.  The  wart-hog  of  Africa,  the  rhi- 
noceros, the  hippopotamus,  and  the  wild  boar  of  Europe  are 

179 


180 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


some  wild  relatives  of  the  domestic  hog.  It  seems  that  the 
hog  and  his  relatives  came  originally  from  southeastern  Asia, 
and  that  we  are  indebted  to  the  Chinese  for  our  swine.  The 


FIG  26.     A  WELL  BRED  FAMILY 

European  breeders  improved  their  early  Chinese  hogs  by 
crossing  them  with  the  large  wild  boars  of  western  Europe. 
In  this  way  the  English  Berkshire  breed  was  formed.  The 
English  took  the  lead  in  developing  the  domestic  hog  as  they 
did  in  improving  cattle.  The  Indians  had  no  hogs,  but  when 
the  European  settlers  found  that  Indian  corn  made  excellent 
feed  for  hogs,  they  had  them  sent  over  from  England.  Thus 
the  hog  and  corn  developed  rapidly  together  in  America, 
and  the  fat  type  of  swine  was  produced.  Among  the  first 
to  breed  and  develop  swine  in  America  were  the  Dutch  farm- 
ers of  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania;  they  developed  the 
Chester  Whites,  the  first  breed  of  American  hog.  As  the 
country  became  settled  westward,  the  counties  in  southern 


SWINE 


181 


Ohio  around  Cincinnati  became  the  great  swine  region  of 
the  United  States.  Here  the  Poland  China  hogs  were  devel- 
oped. Other  domestic  breeds  of  hogs  were  developed  in 
Canada  and  throughout  England. 


TYPES  AND  BBEEOS  OF  SWINE 

Two  types.  There  are  two  well-defined  types  of  hogs, 
the  fat  or  lard-type  and  the  bacon-type.  The  lard-type  is  a 
product  of  the  corn  belt.  In  the  great  corn  producing  states 
we  find  the  lard-type  in  its  highest  degree  of  perfection. 
Bacon  hogs  have  not  been  produced  to  any  great  extent  under 


FIG.   27.     LARD-TYPE  OF  HOG 

systems  of  corn  feeding,  hence  we  find  the  bacon  hog  in 
greater  numbers  in  countries  where  the  food  for  the  hog  is 
more  varied.  Canada,  Denmark,  and  Ireland  are  able  to 
compete  in  their  export  trade  with  the  bacon-types,  because 
the  ''Wiltshire  Side"  (the  side,  ham,  and  shoulder  in  one 
piece)  commands  a  higher  price  than  the  meat  of  the  lard 
hog  in  export  trade. 

The  lard-type  of  hog1.     The  lard-type  of  hog  has  a  com- 


182 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


pact,  thick,  deep,  smooth,  body.  The  ham,  back,  loin,  and 
shoulders  are  the  most  valuable  parts  and  are  developed  to 
a  high  degree.  The  production  of  lard  and  fat  is  the  prin- 
cipal aim  of  this  type.  Quality  is  denoted  by  fine  hair, 
smooth,  clean,  unwrinkled  skin,  rather  fine  bone,  and  an 
even  distribution  of  flesh.  The  jowls  should  be  broad,  plump, 


FIG.  28.     BACON-TYPE  OF  HOG 

and  full,  and  the  body  not  flabby  in  appearance.  The  hog 
should  have  short,  upright  pasterns.  The  snout  should  be 
fine,  the  face  wide  between  the  eyes,  and  the  space  between 
the  ears  wide  and  full.  Width  between  the  eyes  and  full- 
ness and  width  between  the  ears  indicate  a  good  feeder.  The 
neck  should  be  short  and  deep  and  should  blend  smoothly 
into  the  shoulder.  The  shoulder  should  be  well  developed, 
blending  well  into  the  body  and  covered  evenly  with  flesh 


SWINE  183 

over  all  parts.  The  back  should  be  broad,  slightly  arched, 
of  medium  length,  and  thickly  fleshed.  The  ribs  should  be 
well  sprung,  the  sides  deep  and  even  between  the  shoulder 
and  ham.  The  ham  should  be  broad,  deep,  plump,  and 
heavily  fleshed  well  down  toward  the  hocks.  The  rump 
should  be  as  wide  as  the  back.-  The  legs  should  be  short, 
straight,  set  well  apart  and  squarely  under  the  body.  The 
above  brief  description  is  general  for  all  breeds  of  the  lard 
hog.  The  Poland  China,  Chester  White,  Berkshire,  and  Du- 
roc-Jersey  are  the  popular  breeds  of  this  type  of  hog. 

The  bacon-type.  The  weight  of  this  type  of  hog  for  mar- 
ket demands  varies  from  160  to  200  pounds.  The  product 
sought  in  this  type  is  the  " Wiltshire  Side/'  the  upper  half 
of  a  side  from  shoulder  to  ham.  The  form  of  the  bacon-type 
is  quite  different  from  the  form  of  the  lard-type.  The  hog 
has  longer  legs,  the  body  is  not  so  thick  or  deep,  the  shoulders, 
neck,  and  jowls  are  lighter.  The  hog  should  be  long  from 
shoulder  to  ham,  with  sufficient  depth  and  thickness  to  denote 
good  constitution.  Quality,  as  in  the  lard-type,  is  indicated 
by  a  smooth  coat  of  hair  and  an  unwrinkled  skin.  The  fin- 
ished bacon  hog  handles  firmer  to  the  touch  than  a  finished 
lard  hog.  The  bones  of  this  type  are  larger,  but  they  should 
present  a  clean-cut  appearance.  The  loin  is  the  most  valu- 
able cut  in  this  hog,  and  should  be  as  wide  as  the  rest  of  the 
back,  full,  strong,  and  well  packed  with  flesh.  The  ribs  should 
spring  out  boldly  from  the  backbone  and  turn  sharply  down- 
ward, giving  a  straight,  flat  side.  The  leading  breeds  of  the 
bacon-type  of  swine  are  the  Tamworth  and  the  Large  York- 
shire. Sometimes  the  Hampshire  is  so  classed. 


184  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Selecting  the  stock.  The  farmer  who  wishes  to  raise  hogs 
should  make  the  start  with  a  few  first-class  animals.  It  is 
better  to  purchase  one  first-class  brood  sow  than  several 
mediocre  ones  for  the  same  money.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
boar.  He  should  be  a  pure-bred  animal  of  the  type  selected. 
The  following  are  some  characteristics  of  a  good  breeding 
sow:  the  forehead  should  be  broad  and  the  eyes  wide  apart; 
the  neck  rather  thin;  the  shoulders  smooth  and  deep;  the 
back  wide  and  straight;  the  chest  deep  and  broad;  the  ribs 
well  sprung;  and  a  long  body  showing  capacity  from  end  to 
end.  She  should  stand  on  straight  legs  and  well  up  on  the 
toes.  She  should  be  selected  from  a  prolific  strain  and  be  a 
creditable  representative  of  the  breed.  A  good  boar  should 
have  a  masculine  head  and  well-crested  neck,  and  the  same 
indications  of  a  good  pork-producing  body  as  described  for 
a  good  sow. 

BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Various  tests  in  feeding  swine  have  demonstrated  that  no 
one  breed  is  superior  to  all  others  in  ability  to  make  cheap 
gains.  A  healthy,  thrifty  hog  will  make  economical  gains  no 
matter  what  breed  it  represents.  The  various  breeds  have 
their  peculiar  excellencies,  and  it  becomes  a  matter  of  per- 
sonal choice  in  determining  what  breed  to  raise.  It  is  advis- 
able for  best  commercial  interests,  however,  for  a  community 
to  confine  its  swine  production  to  the  same  one  or  two  breeds. 

The  Berkshire.  The  Berkshire  is  an  attractive  animal, 
rather  above  medium  size  and  belongs  to  the  lard-type.  The 


SWINE  185 

face  is  dished,  the  snout  short,  the  jowl  full  and  heavy,  the 
neck  short,  and  the  ears  erect.  The  body  of  the  Berkshire 
is  long  and  smooth,  with  a  thickly  meated,  neat,  trim  ham. 
In  this  breed  the  bone  is  strong  and  clean,  but  the  animal 
does  not  always  stand  well  on  its  feet.  The  standard  color 
is  black  with  white  markings  on  «the  face,  on  each  foot,  and 
on  the  tip  of  the  tail.  It  attains  good  weight  at  an  early  age, 
fattens  readily  and  is  known  for  its  excellent  quality  of 
meat.  The  breed  came  originally  from  Berkshire  in  Eng- 
land. 

The  Poland  China.  The  present  day  Poland  China  is  a 
large  hog,  some  of  the  boars  weighing  over  one  thousand 
pounds.  The  face  is  slightly  dished,  the  jowls  are  full  and 
heavy,  and  the  ears  are  fine  and  droop  at  about  one-third 
of  their  length.  The  shoulders  and  hind  quarters  are  heavy 
and  the  sides  are  straight  and  deep.  As  a  rule  the  legs  are 
short  and  the  bone  fine.  The  color  is  black,  with  white  on 
face,  feet,  and  tip  of  tail — " black,  with  six  white  points." 
The  Poland  China  is  especially  a  lard-type  of  hog.  It  is  a 
fine  yielder  from  the  packer's  standpoint.  No  breed  excels 
the  Poland  China  in  ability  to  produce  a  finished  fat  carcass 
for  the  butcher  at  an  early  age.  It  has  developed  on  corn 
feeding  and  is  a  great  favorite  in  the  corn  belt.  The  breed 
originated  in  the  Miami  Valley  of  Ohio. 

The  Duroc-Jersey.  The  Duroc-Jersey  is  a  large  hog  of 
the  lard-type.  The  snout  is  medium  length,  the  face  usually 
straight.  Durocs  have  a  characteristic  arched  back.  Cherry 
red  is  the  common  color,  but  chestnut  and  yellowish  red  are 


186 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


often  seen.  The  Duroc  is  a  good  grazer  as  well  as  a  good 
corn  feeder.  This  breed  is  very  prolific  and  crosses  well 
with  several  other  breeds.  The  red  pigs  get  their  name 
"  Jersey  Reds"  from.  New  Jersey,  where  they  gained  consid- 
erable prominence,  and  " Duroc,"  a  breed,  strange  to  say, 
named  after  a  stallion,  from  Duroc,  in  Saratoga  County, 
New  York.  The  breeders  of  Jersey  Reds  and  Durocs  united 
under  the  name  "  Duroc- Jersey "  and  have  developed  this 
excellent  breed  in  later  years. 

The  Chester  White.  The  Chester  White  is  a  large  white 
hog  of  the  lard-type.  The  face  is  straight,  the  snout  me- 
dium, the  ears  are  heavy  and  droop  at  the  tip.  The  con- 
formation of  the  Chester  Whites  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Poland  China,  but  they  have  wider  backs  and  lighter  hams. 
The  Ohio  Improved  Chester  Whites  (0.  I.  C.)  is  a  strain 
resulting  from  an  attempt  to  improve  the  Chester  White 
through  selection. 

The  breed  matures  early  and  is  an  economical  feeder.  It 
is  a  good  grazer  and  fairly  hardy.  Admirers  of  the  Chester 
Whites  claim  the  breed  ranks  among  the  first  in  being  pro- 
lific. The  breed  originated  in  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania. 
The  Hampshire.  The  Hampshire  is  a  medium-sized  hog 
coming  between  the  lard-type  and  bacon-type  of  hog.  The 
face  is  straight,  the  ears  incline  forward  but  do  not  droop 
like  those  of  the  Poland  China.  The  shoulders,  ham,  and 
jowls  are  lighter  than  those  of  fat  hogs.  There  is  less  width 
of  back  and  more  length  of  side.  The  most  fashionable  color 
"listed"  consists  of  black  extremities  with  a  white  belt  from 
four  to  twelve  inches  wide  encircling  the  body  and  including 


SWINE  187 

the  fore-legs.  Although  the  Hampshire  does  not  suit  the 
demands  of  the  "Wiltshire  Sides"  for  British  export  trade, 
the  breed  as  a  bacon-type  is  well  suited  to  American  demands 
for  bacon,  The  Hampshire  is  a  breed  growing  in  popularity 
and  has  a  reputation  for  good,  fine-grained  flesh  with  a  high 
per  cent  of  lean,  dressing  out  with  excellent  net  weight  for 
packing.  It  is  an  active,  hardy  breed  and  is  giving  good 
satisfaction  both  as  a  feeder  and  breeder.  The  breed  origi- 
nated in  Hampshire,  England. 

The  Large  Yorkshire.  The  Large  Yorkshire  is  one  of  the 
largest  breeds  of  swine.  It  is  a  typical  bacon  hog.  The  face 
is  dished,  the  snout  practically  straight,  the  ears  are  large 
and  erect,  the  shoulders  and  back  of  only  medium  width, 
the  sides  are  long,  and  the  ham  carries  very  little  fat.  The 
bones  are  heavy,  and  the  legs  longer  than  those  of  the  lard- 
type  of  hog.  The  color  is  white,  with  pinkish  skin.  There  is 
a  tendency  to  wide  variation  in  many  points  in  this  breed. 
The  Large  Yorkshire  is  highly  valued  for  bacon  production. 
For  quality  of  bacon  it  is  rivalled  only  by  the  Tamworth. 
The  breed  is  of  "English  origin. 

The  Tamworth.  The  Tamworth,  like  the  Large  York- 
shire, is  a  large-sized  hog  of  the  bacon-type.  It  has  a  long, 
straight  snout,  and  the  ears  are  large  and  fringed  with  fine 
hairs.  In  conformation  the  Tamworth  is  similar  to  the  Large 
Yorkshire.  The  color  is  commonly  a  golden  yellow,  which 
grows  darker  with  age.  The  bacon  of  the  Tamworth  is  highly 
esteemed  in  export  trade.  This  breed  is  of  English  origin 
and  takes  its  name  from  Tamworth  in  Staffordshire. 


188 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 
FEED  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SWINE 


Pig  diet.  The  pig  can  make  more  meat  from  the  food  he 
eats  than  any  other  animal,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
the  hen.  Five  and  one-half  pounds  of  corn  should  make  a 
pound  of  pork.  Although  we  usually  think  of  the  pig  as 
a  grain  eating  animal,  he  will  eat  a  greater  variety  of  food 
than  any  other  domestic  animal.  By  choice  his  diet  would 
include  grain,  grass,  nuts,  roots,  snakes,  worms,  etc.  Hogs 
should  have  access  to  pasture,  for  grass  is  a  healthful  diet 
for  them.  Clover,  alfalfa,  peas,  and  rape  are  excellent  sum- 
mer foods  for  the  development  of  hogs,  while  in  winter  roots 
or  silage,  together  with  the  grain  ration,  should  be  regularly 
fed.  Every  pig  should  have  free  access  to  charcoal  or  coal 
screenings,  ashes,  slacked  lime,  and  salt. 

During  hot  weather  the  hog  craves  a  pool  of  water  to 
reduce  his  temperature,  for  he  perspires  but  little.  In  win- 
ter warm  shelter  for  hogs  reduces  the  amount  of  feed  neces- 
sary. 

Supplementing  corn  in  feeding  hogs.  Corn  is  essentially  a 
fat  forming  feed,  and  is,  therefore,  not  a  good  bone  and 
muscle  producer.  Exclusive  corn  feeding  works  great  harm 
in  the  case  of  young  growing  pigs,  and  numerous  experiments 
have  been  conducted  in  combining  other  feeds  with  corn  in 
order  to  overcome  its  objectionable  features.  When  prop- 
erly combined  with  a  supplementary  feed,  relatively  rich  in 
protein  and  minerals,  corn  is  the  best  hog  feed  obtainable. 
Pasture  is  an  excellent  supplement  to  corn,  especially  clover 
and  alfalfa.  Tankage  and  meat  meals  may  be  given  in  small 


SWINE 


189 


proportions  when  used  in  dry  lot  feeding  or  in  full  feeding 
on  pasture.  When  hogs  are  on  pasture,  tankage  supple- 
ments the  corn  most  economically.  Soy  beans  also  afford 
a  valuable  supplement  to  corn. 

General  care  and  management.  Many  farmers  seem  to 
think  that  hogs  require  but  little^ care  and  attention.  The 
filthy  pens  where  hogs  are  often  compelled  to  wallow  and  feed, 
the  damp,  dark,  ill- ventilated  boxes  in  which  they  are  often 


FIG.   29.     A  GOOD   HOG  HOUSE 

confined,  and  the  dirty  slop  which  constitutes  such  a  large 
part  of  their  diet,  show  the  vile  neglect  and  inhuman  treat- 
ment often  given  to  this  valuable  farm  animal.  Good,  whole- 
some pork  is  not  produced  under  such  circumstances.  It  is 
better  to  fatten  the  hogs  in  a  ten-acre  field  than  in  a  ten-foot 
lot.  The  hog  is  a  voracious  feeder,  but  he  responds  readily 
to  wholesome  food  by  giving  returns  according  to  treatment 
and  care. 

Hog  houses.  Good  hog  houses  will  have  reasonable 
warmth,  sunlight,  cleanliness,  dryness,  ventilation,  and  con- 
venience. Hogs  are  sensitive  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 


190 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


and  should  have  houses  for  shelter  and  shade.  The  house 
should  be  located  on  a  dry  site  where  the  drainage  is  good. 
The  beginner  should  not  put  up  expensive  buildings.  The 
above  mentioned  important  qualities  of  the  hog  house  may 
be  secured  in  many  ways  to  suit  the  convenience  and  finan- 
cial condition  of  the  grower.  Much  attention  is  being  given 
to  the  construction  of  good  hog  houses,  and  details  may  be 
obtained  from  the  state  experiment  stations,  or  from  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Some  points  in  the  care  of  a  brood  sow.  It  is  not  advis- 
able to  breed  the  sows  before  they  are  eight  or  ten  months 
old,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  best  to  wait  three  or  four  days 
after  the  pigs  are  weaned  before  breeding  her  again.  The 
period  of  gestation  in  sows  is  112-116  days.  Most  farmers 
will  find  that  it  is  safer  to  have  their  sows  farrow  in  March 
and  September,  producing  two  litters  each  year.  A  good 
pasture  affords  ideal  conditions  for  the  brood  sow.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  gestation  the  sow  should  be  kept  in  good 
condition  but  not  over-fat.  An  exclusive  corn  diet  can  not 
give  best  results,  because  it  does  not  furnish  enough  bone 
and  muscle  forming  constituents  for  unborn  pigs.  Equal 
parts  of  ground  corn,  ground  oats,  and  wheat  middlings  is 
the  ration  recommended  for  the  brood  sow.  There  should 
be  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  water  at  all  times.  The 
farrowing  pen  should  be  dry,  well  ventilated,  and  free  from 
draughts.  Equal  parts  of  ground  oats  and  wheat  middlings, 
allowed  to  soak  between  feedings,  is  an  excellent  ration  for 
nursing  sows.  If  sweet  skim-milk  can  be  added,  the  ration 


SWINE  191 

is  almost  ideal.  A  limited  amount  of  bulky,  succulent  feed 
helps  to  keep  the  sow  healthy. 

Care  of  little  pigs.  Little  pigs  should  be  allowed  to  get 
on  the  ground  and  in  the  sunshine  as  soon  as  the  weather  is 
moderate.  After  three  weeks  they  should  have  other  food 
in  addition  to  the  sow's  milk.  Sljim-milk  or  oatmeal  gruel 
is  an  excellent  diet  for  little  pigs.  Some  succulent  feed,  such 
as  green  clover  and  roots,  will  soon  be  relished  by  the  grow- 
ing pigs  and  should  always  be  included  in  the  diet.  A  small 
amount  of  soaked  whole  corn  scattered  over  the  floor  of  the 
pen  is  good  food  for  the  pigs  and  will  cause  them  to  exercise 
while  hunting  for  it.  Skim-milk  and  middlings  make  about 
the  best  feed  for  young  pigs  after  weaning.  At  no  time 
should  the  growing  pig  be  given  an  exclusive  diet  of  corn. 
The  most  profitable  time  to  feed  pigs  is  during  the  first  ten 
months  of  their  life.  After  ten  months  of  proper  feeding, 
pigs  should  weigh  from  250  to  300  pounds.  Pigs  fattened 
for  the  market  should  never  see  their  first  birthday  anni- 
versary. 

Hog  cholera.  This  dreaded  disease  among  hogs  is  due  to 
a  filterable  virus  and  causes  a  loss  of  many  millions  of  dol- 
lars annually.  Hogs  show  symptoms  of  the  disease  in  going 
off  to  lie  in  cool  places.  Their  hind  parts  seem  stiff  and  they 
stagger  as  they  walk;  there  is  a  watery  secretion  from  the 
eyelids;  alternate  diarrhoea  and  constipation  are  common. 
Little  can  be  done  by  way  of  treatment  for  this  disease.  Pre- 
ventive measures  are  the  only  effective  means  of  combatting 
hog  cholera.  Quarantine,  isolation,  and  disinfection  are  im- 


192  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

portant  measures  in  fighting  the  disease.     Three  methods  of 
vaccination  are  used  in  preventing  the  cholera: 

(1)  The  injection  of  an  anti-cholera  serum,  which  makes 
the  hogs  immune  only  a  few  months  or  weeks. 

(2)  Simultaneously  with  the  serum  is  injected  the  defibri- 
nated  blood  or  virus  of  a  diseased  hog,  rendering  the  hog 
immune  for  life. 

(3)  In  the  combination  method,  very  seldom  used,  the  hog 
is  vaccinated  with  the  serum  alone  and  ten  days  later  the 
simultaneous  method  is  used.    These  plans  of  combatting  the 
hog  cholera  must  be  carried  out  under  the  direction  of  a 
skilled  veterinarian,  and  the  state  should  supply  the  serum 
to  the  farmer  at  cost. 

Markets.  The  successful  stock  man  is  the  one  who  is 
familiar  with  market  requirements  and  tries  to  meet  them. 
Every  pig  club  member  should  know  something  of  the  mar- 
ket classes  and  grades  of  hogs.  These  differ  somewhat 
according  to  local  conditions,  but  in  a  general  way  the 
classification  given  below  may  be  taken  as  a  standard. 

Heavy  hogs  are  no  longer  at  a  premium  except  when  the 
price  of  lard  is  high.  They  contain  a  large  amount  of  fat. 

Butcher  hogs  are  commonly  used  for  fresh  meat  trade. 
They  are  principally  barrowrs. 

The  term  packing  refers  to  animals  which  are  inferior  as 
butcher  hogs  and  are  cut  up,  cured,  and  packed  in  boxes  and 
barrels.  Mixed  packing  hogs  are  those  marketed  without 
grading. 

The  meat  of  young  pigs  is  unsuitable  for  curing  and  sup- 
plies part  of  the  demand  for  cheap,  fresh  meat. 


SWINE 


193 


The  bacon  hogs  quoted  on  the  Chicago  market  are  lard 
hogs  that  are  not  highly  finished,  have  a  high  per  cent  of 
lean  meat,  and  supply  the  demand  for  lean  pork. 
MARKET  CLASSES  AND   GRADES 


Class 

Weight 

Sub-Class 

Grade 

orrv  rfkrv 

Prime  heavy.  . 

ooU-oUU 

Heavy      

..280-350 

!  Prime 

"Rntplipr 

1  80-^0 

<  Medium  

..220-280 

Good 
Prime 
Good 

Light   

..180-220 

Common 
!  Prime 
Good 

(Heavy  

..300-500 

Common 
Good 
Common 

Packing 

200-CJOO 

<  Medium  

..250-300 

Inferior 
fGood 
J  Common 

Mixed  

..200-280 

[inferior 
fGood 
•s  Common 

rEnglish  .. 
Bacon  J 

lu.  s.  . 

.  .160-220 
..155-195 

[inferior 
!  Choice 
Light 
Fat 
Choice 
Good 

Light  

1  on  OOA 

Common 

Light  light  

..125-150 

TGood 
J  Common 

Light  mixed  

150-220 

[inferior 
TGood 
J  Common 

Pigs  

fiO-i  OP; 

[inferior 
rChoice 

Roughs  

•<  Good 
[Common 

Stags  

Boars  

f  Roasting  pigs 

Misc  

Feeders 

Pen  holders 
[Dead  hogs 

194  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Stags  are  males  castrated  too  late  in  life  to  grade  as  bar- 
rows. Boars  are  used  for  sausage  and  supply  cheap,  fresh 
meat. 

The  present  demand  is  for  hogs  weighing  from  200  to  250 
pounds,  and  the  hog  raiser  should  aim  to  finish  and  market 
his  hogs  at  about  these  weights. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  hog  raising  such  a  popular  form  of  live-stock 
production  on  the  farm? 

2.  What  were  some   of  the  most  needed  improvements 
brought  about  in  swine  over  their  wild  relatives? 

3.  What  are  the  chief  differences  between  the  bacon-  and 
lard-types  of  hogs? 

4.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  brood  sow?    Of 
a  good  boar? 

5.  Name  the  standard  breeds  of  swine  in  this  country. 

6.  What  is  your  favorite  breed,  and  why? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  feeds  supplementary  to  corn  in 
productive  swine  feeding? 

8.  Give  some  reasons  why  swine  should  be  sheltered.    What 
are  the  essentials  of  a  good  piggery? 

9.  Name  five  points  you  consider  essential  in  the  care  of 
the  brood  sow. 

30.     List  some  interesting  hog  habits. 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Reports  upon  the  wild  relatives  of  the  swine.  Pupils 
should  prepare  written  reports  upon  the  following  wild  rela- 
tives of  the  hog:  peccary,  wart  hog,  rhinoceros,  hippopota- 
mus, wild  boar,  etc.,  consulting  geographies,  natural  his- 
tories, and  encyclopedias  for  information  on  these  animals. 


SWINE 


195 


2.  Report  on  swine  at  the  home  farm.  Let  the  pupil 
report  on  the  swine  on  the  home  farm  by  filling  out  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


Types  and 
breeds 

Number 
of  each 

Characteristics  of  each 

Average 
weight 

Estimated 
value 

3.  Quotation  of  market  prices.    Pupils  should  report  the 
market  prices  of  hogs  and  various  pork  products  as  quoted 
in  the  daily  papers  they  receive  at  home  or  at  school. 

4.  Observation  and  study  of  breeds.    If  at  all  practical, 
the  class  in  Agriculture  should  take  a  trip  to  the  various 
farms  in  the  community  and  observe  the  different  breeds  of 
swine.     The  pupils  should  be  able  to  tell  the  difference  be- 
tween the  Berkshires,  Poland  China,  Chester  White,  Duroc- 
Jersey,  or  any  other  breeds  found  in  the  community.     The 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  these  breeds  should  be  noted 
and  thoroughly  learned  on  a  trip  of  this  kind.  . 

5.  Comparative  judging1.    Prepare  a  ring  of  swine,  two, 
three,  or  four  animals,  and  have  the  pupils  place  these  accord- 
ing to  rank,  basing  their  judgment  on  form,  condition,  and 
quality  of  the  swine  in  the  ring.     In  doing  this  exercise  it 
may  be  necessary  for  the  instructor  to  go  over  the  whole  mat- 
ter of  conformation,  condition,  and  quality,  as  they  should 
be  found  in  good  swine. 


196  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

6.  Exercises  in  judging.    After  the  students  have  become 
somewhat  familiar  with  the  points  in  judging  swine,  infor- 
mation may  be  given  as  to  the  judging  of  individuals  by  the 
score-cards.     Under  the  direction  of  the  instructor  use  the 
score-card  of  your  State  Experiment  Station. 

7.  Reports  on  home  meat  production.     Let  each  pupil 
report  on  the  methods  of  feeding  and  managing  swine  at 
home,  using  the  following  outline: 

(a)  The  house,  pen,  or  range  in  which  the  pigs  are  fed 
for  fattening. 

(b)  The  feed  used,  amount,  kind,  etc. 

(c)  Criticism  of  the  above  methods,  and  suggestions  for 
improvement. 

8.  Houses.    Students  should  bring  pictures  of  hog  houses, 
clipped  from  farm  papers  or  other  publications  in  which  they 
may  be  found,  and  in  class  make  a  critical  study  of  the  illus- 
trations assembled.    Ground  floor  plans  should  be  drawn  by 
each  student  for  several  types  of  house. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
POULTRY 

Arguments  for  poultry  raising  as  a  school  study.  There 
is  no  phase  of  agriculture  that  interests  and  directly  concerns 
so  large  a  proportion  of  people  in  any  community  as  poultry. 
We  find  poultry  on  practically  every  farm  in  the  country 
and,  to  a  large  extent,  in  the  towns  and  cities. 

Poultry  raising  requires  very  little  capital,  very  little  area, 
and  one  does  not  have  to  wait  long  for  profits.  A  large  num- 


FIG.   30.     A  GOOD  TYPE   OF  HEN 


her  of  chickens  may  be  raised  in  the  same  period  of  time 
it  takes  to  grow  a  crop  of  corn.  The  products,  both  meat  and 
eggs,  are  always  in  demand  and  in  season  the  year  round. 

197 


198  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

The  principles  of  feeding,  breeding,  and  general  care  are 
the  same  for  poultry  as  for  other  kinds  of  live  stock,  and  may 
be  studied  with  practical  demonstrations  in  any  school. 

The  hen  as  an  efficient  machine  of  production.  Poultry 
raising  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  branches  of  animal  hus- 
bandry. All  our  domestic  animals  are  kept  on  the  farm  for 
the  purpose  of  converting  the  products  of  the  soil  into  animal 
products,  and  tests  that  have  been  carefully  made  by  differ- 
ent experiment  stations  show  that  there  is  no  class  of  domes- 
tic animals  that  converts  the  grains,  forages,  and  waste  prod- 
ucts of  the  farm  and  the  insect  pests  of  our  crops  so  eco- 
nomically into  animal  foods  as  does  the  hen.  Three  and  a 
half  pounds  of  grain,  fed  from  the  time  the  chick  is  hatched 
up  to  the  time  it  weighs  from  four  to  six  pounds,  is  required 
for  one  pound  of  chicken.  It  takes  five  or  six  pounds  of  food 
to  make  a  pound  of  pork,  which  is  the  next  cheapest  meat. 

The  standard  farm  breeds  and  their  special  points  of 
excellence.  Our  economic  fowls  may  be  divided  into  three 
general  classes: 

(a)  The  type  known  as  the  egg  class,  or  Mediterraneans, 
generally  small,  light  birds,  including  Leghorns,  Anconas,  and 
Minorcas.  These  are  of  special  interest  to  the  poultry  keeper 
because  they  produce  a  pure  white  egg.  They  have  been 
developed  for  egg  production.  They  are  often  spoken  of  as 
the  egg  fowls,  but  they  are  not  really  the  greatest  egg  pro- 
ducers, as  some  fowls  of  other  breeds  produce  just  as  many 
eggs.  The  point  that  makes  them  especially  popular  is  that 
eastern  markets,  such  as  New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  and 
also  the  Pacific  coast,  will  pay  more  for  a  pure  white  egg 


POULTRY 


199 


than  for  a  brown-shelled  one.     The  only  class  of  hens  that 
will  lay  the  pure  white  egg  is  the  Mediterranean. 

(b)  The  meat  type,  known  as  the  Asiatics.  There  are  three 
breeds  of  particular  importance:  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and 
Langshans.  The  first  two  are  not  noted  as  great  layers,  though 
the  Brahmas  are  fair  layers.  The  Langshans  are  among  the 


FIG.   31.     THE  DUAL-PURPOSE-TYPE 

very  best  layers,  competing  quite  favorably  with  others  in 
the  egg  contests.  This  type  is  called  the  meat  breed,  because 
the  fowls  are  heavy  and  make  the  big  roasters.  They  are 
very  valuable  in  the  eastern  states,  especially  in  Boston. 
"Green  roasters"  or  "soft  roasters"  are  very  much  in  de- 
mand, bringing  as  much  as  35  cents  per  pound  live  weight, 
and  weighing  from  6  to  9  or  10  pounds  when  dressed. 


200  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

(c)  The  general  purpose  or  American  class,  the  type  popu- 
lar among  the  people  generally.  This  type  combines  two 
characteristics  to  a  high  degree — egg  production  and  meat. 
The  breeds  especially  notable  are  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyan- 
dottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Orpingtons. 

The  Plymouth  Rocks  are  fowls  that  weigh  from  6  to  10 
pounds.  They  are  a  very  hardy  breed  and  lay  good-sized 


The  ability  to  produce  a  great  many  eggs  is  not  a  matter 
of  breed,  but  of  breeding  or  strain.  The  individual  must  be 
selected  and  bred  with  reference  to  its  particular  character- 
istic, whether  it  be  appearance,  plumage,  meat  weight,  egg- 
laying  power,  or  what  not.  This  principle  holds  good  with 
all  classes  of  fowls,  even  with  the  meat  class.  The  Langshans 
in  Australia,  for  instance,  often  lead  the  list  in  the  egg-lay- 
ing contests  there.  The  Mediterranean  type  is  capable  of 
being  developed  into  great  layers. 

The  Plymouth  Rocks  were  the  first  American  breed  to  be 
developed.  They  were  given  their  name  solely  for  patriotic 
reasons. 

The  Wyandottes.  The  second  American  breed  to  be  devel- 
oped was  the  Wyandotte,  an  Indian  name.  They  are  about 
one  pound  smaller  than  the  Plymouths ;  that  is,  they  weigh 
from  51/2  to  S1/^  pounds  and  are  very  compact  and  round. 
The  Wyandotte  is  called  the  bird  of  curves.  For  broilers 
of  from  %  to  2  pounds,  they  develop  rapidly.  The  birds  of 
the  meat  class  are  not  best  to  eat,  usually,  until  they  weigh 
about  3  or  4  pounds. 

The  Wyandottes  have  a  rose  comb  or  double  comb,  which 


POULTRY  201 

is  a  low,  fleshy  tissue  quite  different  from  the  single  comb 
that  stands  up  more  prominently.  This  low  comb  is  less 
exposed  to  the  cold.  Some  people  in  the  colder  sections  of 
the  country  think  it  is  better  to  have  a  breed  with  the  rose 
comb,  but  the  preference  is  largely  a  matter  of  fancy. 

Rhode  Island  Reds  were  the  latest  breed  to  be  developed 
in  this  country.  They  are  believed  to  be  the  hardiest  and 
most  vigorous  of  any  of  our  American  breeds.  They  are 
the  same  size  as  the  Wyandottes,  and  a  pound  smaller  than 
the  Plymouth  Rocks.  Raised  under  similar  conditions,  when 
mature,  a  Plymouth  Rock  that  is  true  to  her  breed  and  type 
should  weigh  a  pound  more  than  a  Wyandotte  or  a  Rhode 
Island  Red.  The  Rhode  Island  Reds  are  naturally  great  lay- 
ers. At  several  experiment  stations  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  they  are  the  great  money  makers,  although  some  pens 
of  Plymouth  Rocks  have  contested  them  closely.  The  Rhode 
Island  Reds  lay  a  large  and  very  perfectly  shelled  egg.  Some 
say  the  Rhode  Island  Reds  eggs  can  be  picked  out  from  a 
basket  by  touch,  because  of  the  marble  smoothness  of  the 
shell. 

The  Orpingtons  are  an  English  breed.  They  are  classed 
with  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and  Reds  because,  for 
the  general  purposes,  they  are  midway  between  the  light  and 
the  heavy  in  size.  They  are  about  half  a  pound  larger  than 
the  Plymouth  Rock,  and  are  like  the  other  English  breed 
birds  in  having  a  white  instead  of  a  yellow  skin.  There  is  a 
feeling  among  a  great  many  people  that  a  yellow  skin  indi- 
cates a  richness  and  juiciness  of  flesh.  There  are  no  table 
birds  superior  to  the  Orpingtons.  The  skin  is  very  tender, 


202  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

and  they  fatten  well  for  a  table  bird.    They  are  also  excel- 
lent layers. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  Orpingtons;  white,  buff,  and 
black.  They  are  beautiful  to  look  upon,  having  fluffy  feath- 
ers somewhat  looser  than  the  American  breeds.  They  have 
a  single  comb,  but  it  is  not  large  and  thus  not  exposed  to 
the  cold. 

Improvements.  Probably  the  most  desirable  improve- 
ment to  be  sought  on  the  farm  is  strong,  healthy  birds  with 
a  maximum  of  egg  production,  especially  during  the  winter 
months.  There  is  no  reason  why  as  great  an  improvement 
in  egg  production  should  not  and  may  not  be  secured  by  the 
poultry  keeper  as  the  dairy  keeper  has  secured  during  the 
past  few  years  in  the  production  of  milk.  The  dairyman 
found  out  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  herd  did  not  pay 
for  their  feed.  The  same  is  true  with  poultry.  Weak,  un- 
healthy birds  are  always  the  centers  of  disease,  because 
poultry  is  kept  in  larger  numbers  and  the  individuals  are 
not  so  directly  under  the  eye  of  the  keeper.  There  is  more 
danger  of  starting  diseases  in  a  flock  than  there  is  with  other 
kinds  of  domestic  animals.  By  weeding  out  the  unhealthy 
birds  one  may  be  saved  much  loss  and  disappointment. 

The  relative  value  of  feeding  and  breeding  in  egg-  pro- 
duction. If  we  regard  fowls,  as  we  do  our  other  domestic 
animals,  as  machines  whose  business  it  is  to  convert  as  profit- 
ably as  possible  the  produce  of  the  soil  (the  feeds)  into  high- 
class,  desirable,  animal  products,  then,  first,  it  is  to  the  inter- 
est of  the  poultry  keeper  to  make  sure  that  his  machine  is 


POULTRY  203 

as  perfect  as  he  can  get  it;  that  is,  that  his  poultry  is  well 
bred.  So  much  for  the  machine. 

Then  everybody  knows  that  if  he  has  ever  so  valuable  an 
engine  or  machine  of  any  sort,  to  make  it  the  source  of  the 
greatest  possible  profit  he  must  have  materials  to  work  up 
into  the  product.  The  more  one  «an  make  the  fowls  eat,  if 
the  food  is  not  fed  wastefully,  the  greater  should  be  the 
profit.  If  one  can  breed  fowls  to  develop  the  characteristic 
of  early  laying  and  early  maturity,  which  would  mean 
in  the  fall  and  winter,  they  would  be  of  the  greatest  profit. 
Two  hens  may  lay  equal  numbers  of  eggs,  but  one  may  bring 
in  three  or  four  times  as  much  profit  as  the  other,  because 
she  lays  at  the  time  when  eggs  sell  at  the  highest  price. 

Some  good  feeding  rations  for  laying  hens.  One  of  the 
best  rations,  and  the  simplest,  is  grain,  wheat,  and  corn  only, 
fed  morning  and  night,  spread  in  the  litter,  changing  the 
proportion  according  to  the  season.  In  the  fall  and  spring 
feed  equal  amounts  of  wheat  and  corn ;  in  the  summer,  one 
part  of  corn  to  two  parts  of  wheat ;  in  the  winter,  two  parts 
corn  to  one  part  wheat.  Keep  coarse  ground  oats  in  the 
feed  hopper  all  the  time.  These  are  foods  which  are  easily 
procured  by  the  poultry  keeper  whether  in  town  or  on  the 
farm. 

Mixed  with  these  ground  oats  in  dry  mash  (formerly  they 
used  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  and  ground  corn)  is  about 
15  per  cent  of  meat  scrap.  This  is  the  by-product  of  the 
packing  houses;  it  is  cheap  meat  and  some  cartilage,  etc., 
ground  up,  cooked,  and  dried,  so  that  all  the  germs  are 


204 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


killed.  It  can  be  stored  and  kept  just  like  wheat  bran. 
Formerly  it  was  called  beef  scrap. 

One  can  not  get  profitable  results  from  fowls  without  feed- 
ing some  kind  of  animal  food.  The  town  poultry  keeper  has 
enough  table  scraps  to  answer  the  purpose,  and  in  the  sum- 
mer the  fowls  can  get  insects  easily,  which  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  summer  laying  is  much  more  common  than  winter 
laying.  If  hens  produce  winter  eggs,  they  must  be  fed 
meat  scrap  or  some  other  animal  food.  If  the  farmer  can 
profitably  do  so,  he  should  use  skim-milk  or  buttermilk.  The 
fowls  will  drink  this,  and  the  meat  scrap  may  be  omitted. 
The  meat  scrap  is  the  most  expensive  element  of  the  ration, 
costing  about  S1^  cents  per  pound.  Feeding  buttermilk  to 
hens  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  uses  that  can  be  made  of 
that  by-product. 

Poultry  keepers  should  feed  oyster  shells.  These  help  to 
form  the  eggshells.  Analysis  shows  that  the  composition  of 
the  oyster  shell  and  the  eggshell  is  almost  identical.  The 
oyster  shell  dissolves  rapidly  enough  to  provide  the  calcium 
carbonate.  Grit  must  also  be  fed,  though  many  people  think 
that  either  one  is  enough.  Grit  is  a  granite  or  any  material 
hard  enough  to  grind  the  food.  Coarse  sand  or  gravel  is 
used  by  many  poultry  raisers,  but  the  round  particles  in  the 
sand  or  gravel  are  not  sharp  enough  to  grind ;  the  prepared 
chicken  grit  or  ground  granite  is  much  more  satisfactory. 

In  addition,  the  chickens  should  have  some  kind  of  suc- 
culent feed.  That  may  be  apple  parings,  potato  par- 
ings, cabbage,  beets,  etc.  Sprouted  oats  are  now  be- 


POULTRY  205 

coming  one  of  the  most  popular  feeds,  because  they  can 
be  grown  easily  in  the  winter  in  any  basement  where  they 
will  not  freeze.  A  very  good  substitute  is  finely  cut  alfalfa 
or  clover  hay  on  which  warm  water  is  poured  and  allowed 
to  steep  over  night. 

Much  emphasis  must  be  placed  upon  the  water.  We  learn 
what  should  be  fed  fowls  by  the  composition  of  the  egg. 
The  hen  is  not  a  wizard  and  can  not  make  a  product  of 
materials  which  do  not  contain  all  the  constituents  of  the 
product.  Over  65  per  cent  of  the  egg  is  water.  If  she  does 
not  get  her  liquid  either  in  water  or  milk  (when  we  give 
buttermilk  she  gets  both  water  and  protein),  the  hen 
can  not  manufacture  eggs.  She  must  have  a  constant 
supply  of  liquid.  Few  people  give  the  chickens  enough  to 
drink,  particularly  the  laying  hens.  Hens  will  consume  much 
more  water  when  they  are  laying.  This  same  indication  may 
be  seen  in  the  oyster  shells.  They  will  not  touch  the  shell 
until  they  are  ready  to  begin  laying.  And  since  water  or 
milk  is  one  of  the  best  carriers  of  disease  germs,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  sure  that  the  drinking  vessels  are  kept  clean, 
and  that  the  liquid  put  in  them  is  clean  and  pure.  In  warm 
weather  it  should  be  kept  in  the  shade. 

Essentials  of  a  good  poultry  house.  The  order  in  which 
the  essentials  are  mentioned  does  not  mean  that  one  is  more 
important  than  the  other ;  they  are  all  necessary. 

1.  Freedom  from  dampness. 

2.  Freedom  from  draughts  (no  cross  draughts). 

3.  Excellent  ventilation. 


206  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

4.  Cheerful  surroundings;  plenty  of  light. 

5.  Room  and  convenience. 

"Without  all  of  these  five  conditions,  one  can  not  have  a  good 
poultry  house. 


FIG.   32.     A  GOOD  POULTRY  HOUSE 

The  necessity  of  housing1  chickens  in  cold  weather.  The 
best  results  in  the  production  of  winter  eggs — which  is  really 
the  profitable  side  of  poultry  keeping — are  obtained  by  keep- 
ing the  chickens  housed  from  the  time  cold  weather  starts 
in  the  fall  until  spring  comes.  The  fowls  should  not  touch 
their  feet  on  the  ground  out-of-doors  during  the  winter 
months.  For  breeding  flocks  it  is  desirable  to  give  a  little 
more  opportunity  for  exercise.  If  you  are  trying  to  breed,  do 
not  plan  to  get  winter  eggs  at  all.  In  this  case  egg  produc- 
tion should  not  begin  until  you  are  ready  to  set  the  eggs. 
Most  people,  however,  are  interested  in  getting  winter 
eggs. 

School  poultry.  In  the  school  work  of  hatching  and 
rearing  young  chickens,  either  the  incubator  or  the  hen  may 


POULTRY  207 

be  used,  preferably  both,  wherever  a  school  equipment  will 
permit  it.  One  should  not  attempt  to  use  an  incubator  in 
connection  with  any  school  unless  there  is  a  basement  in 
which  it  may  be  kept  safely  and  under  fairly  good  conditions. 

Descriptions  and  illustrations  of  ideal  hen  houses  for  keep- 
ing young  chickens,  the  brood  coop«,  etc.,  will  be  furnished 
by  the  state  experiment  stations.  The  children  in  the  coun- 
try school  can  easily  make  the  coops  and  use  them  in  egg- 
laying  contests.  In  these  contests  each  pupil  sets  a  hen  in 
one  of  these  coops.  A  prize  is  given  to  the  pupil  who  raises 
the  largest  number  of  chickens;  another  to  the  pupil  who 
raises  the  greatest  number  of  pounds  of  chicken;  another  to 
the  owner  of  the  chickens  that  score  the  highest,  etc. 

Some  sanitary  measures  in  the  prevention  of  diseases 
among  poultry.  Common  poultry  ailments  can  be  divided 
into  three  classes: 

(a)  Those  that  affect  the  respiratory  organs. 

(b)  Those  that  affect  the  digestive  organs. 

(c)  The  parasites. 

The  kind  of  poultry  house  described  on  a  preceding  page 
is  the  best  preventative  for  the  first  class  of  diseases.  The 
most  serious  disease  among  poultry  is  roup,  which  is  a  catar- 
rhal  cold  resulting  from  secretions  of  the  head,  from  which 
the  chicken  can  not  free  itself  and  which  become  putrid  and 
poison  the  system.  A  simple  remedy  is:  a  little  ointment 
made  of  camphor,  eucalyptus  oil,  menthol,  and  oil  of  cloves, 
applied  with  a  sewing  machine  oil  can  through  the  nostrils 
into  the  cleft  roof  of  the  mouth.  It  is  an  almost  absolute 
cure. 


208  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

A  preventative  of  digestive  troubles  is  granulated  charcoal. 
It  is  not  a  food  or  a  medicine,  but  a  corrective. 

The  greatest  protection  against  any  ailment  is  to  have 
only  healthy,  vigorous,  breeding  stock.  Healthy  stock  and 
sanitary  conditions  will  eliminate  most  poultry  troubles.  The 
best  protection  against  the  spread  of  diseases  which  are  gen- 
erally carried  through  drinking  water  is  to  use  crystalline 
potassium  permanganate  in  the  water.  This  destroys  organic 
matter.  A  few  crystals  in  a  quart  of  water  will  color  it  pur- 
ple, and  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  For  protection 
against  parasites,  keep  the  houses  clean  and  spray  frequently 
with  a  mixture  of  coal  oil  and  crude  carbolic  acid.  The  best 
protection  against  lice  is  an  application  of  a  mercurial  oint- 
ment. A  piece  about  as  big  as  a  pea  rubbed  in  the  fluff  over 
an  area  of  about  one  square  inch  will  protect  the  chicken  for 
a  month. 

The  water-glass  recipe  for  preservation  of  eggs.  Use  one 
part  of  liquid  water-glass,  which  can  be  bought  at  about  75 
cents  per  gallon,  with  nine  parts  of  ordinary  drinking  water. 
It  is  best  to  boil  this  water  first  to  expel  the  air.  Mix  thor- 
oughly. Put  the  eggs  into  a  two-quart  fruit  jar.  This  will 
hold  about  sixteen  eggs  and  require  about  one  quart  of  the 
solution.  Screw  the  top  on.  The  eggs  will  keep  in  large 
stone  crocks  without  covers,  but  after  the  liquid  is  exposed 
to  the  air  it  begins  to  thicken  in  the  bottom,  and  the  eggs 
which  have  thin  shells  will  be  a  little  alkaline  to  taste  after 
several  months.  If  a  fruit  jar  is  used  and  the  lid  is  screwed 
on  tight,  the  liquid  will  remain  as  clear  as  water. 

Poultry  judging.    If  the  community  is  interested  in  prac- 


POULTRY  209 

ticing  poultry  judging,  gather  iii  a  number  of  birds  and  add 
to  the  interest  of  the  work  by  scoring.  Scoring  is  easily 
taught.  Almost  any  good  poultry  text  now  gives  the  score- 
card  and  full  descriptions  which  are  easily  understood. 

The  poultry  business.  The  experiment  stations  advise 
farmers  who  are  at  all  interested  in  poultry  keeping  to 
organize  the  poultry  just  as  the  dairyman  does  his  cows  into 
a  unit  large  enough  to  keep  one  person  busy  all  the  time. 
A  unit  of  not  less  than  500,  and  as  many  multiples  of  this 
as  possible,  is  advisable.  An  elderly  person  or  an  invalid 
could  take  care  of  500  chickens,  except  for  occasional  heavy 
work. 

There  is  no  line  of  agricultural  work  that  promises  so 
large  a  profit  as  poultry  raising.  All  our  large  poultry 
industries  are  showing  that  it  is  a  conservative  estimate  to 
expect  a  hen  to  lay  twelve  dozen  eggs  in  a  year ;  a  few  record 
hens  have  laid  300  eggs.  It  costs  about  a  dollar  to  feed 
a  hen  a  year.  At  twenty-five  cents  a  dozen  as  the  selling 
price,  there  would  be  three  dollars  return  for  the  egg  prod- 
ucts, or  two  dollars  profit  above  the  cost  of  feed.  When  you 
have  a  unit  of  500  chickens  making  a  profit  of  two  dollars 
or  even  one  dollar  each  per  year,  you  have  a  pretty  good 
income  from  that  branch  of  your  farming.  Then,  too,  poul- 
try combines  readily  with  many  other  forms  of  agriculture. 
Poultry  with  fruit,  poultry  with  truck  gardening,  poultry 
with  dairying, — all  these  are  excellent  combinations. 


210 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  three  good  reasons  why  poultry  should  be  raised 
on  the  farm. 

2.  Name  ten  standard  breeds  of  farm  poultry. 

3.  What  is  your  favorite  breed  and  why  ? 

4.  Give  one  good  feeding  ration  for  egg  production. 

5.  Why  must  the  chickens  have  oyster  shells  and  grit? 

6.  Why  are  green  foods,  meat  foods,  and  water  so  essen- 
tial in  the  chicken's  ration? 

7.  Name  four  essentials  of  a  good  poultry  house. 

8.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  trap  nests? 

9.  What  is  meant    by    developing    desirable    strains    in 
poultry  ? 

10.  List  six  or  seven  common  poultry  ailments. 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 
1.    Reports  on  home  poultry. 


Breeds 


Number 
of  Fowls 


Characteristics 


Profitableness 


2.     Poultry  records.    Each  student  during  the  period  of 
poultry  study  should  keep  a  feeding  and  egg  record  of  the 


POULTRY 


211 


flocks  at  home.  The  records  should  be  kept  for  at  least  ten 
days,  and  a  full  report  given  by  each  student  in  the  class  at 
the  end  of  the  period. 

3.  Trap  nests.    In  order  to  determine  which  hens  in  the 
home  flock  are  laying,  the  trap  nest  may  be  used  as  part  of 
the  practical  work  of  this  study.     Students  should  install 
trap  nests  at  home.     These  nests^may  be  purchased  at  the 
poultry  supply  house,  or  an  ingen- 
ious boy  may  make  them.     The 

manual  training  department  of 
the  high  school  would  find  this 
piece  of  work  practical.  The  hens 
.caught  in  the  trap  nests  are  num- 
bered by  leg  bands.  In  selecting 
eggs  for  breeding  purposes,  the 
eggs  laid  by  these  trapped  hens 
are  very  desirable,  especially  if  laid  in  the  winter  time. 

4.  The  egg.     (a)  For  this  exercise  pupils  should  bring 
to  the  class  a  few  eggs  for  study  and  observation.    As  an 
interesting   introduction   to  the   study   the   instructor  may 
tabulate  on  the  board  the  following  data  for  the  collection 
brought  in: 


FIG.   33.     A  TRAP  NEST 


Pupil's  Name 

Breed  of 
Chickens 

Color  of 
Egg 

Weight 

Size 

Form 

212  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Pupils  should  copy  this  table  in  their  notebooks  and  fill  in 
the  information  gained. 

(b)  Practice  in  examining1  eggs  for  freshness.    Provide 
a  large  shoe-box  and  a  lamp  or  other  light  for  this  exercise. 
Place  the  light  in  the  box  and  hold  the  egg  between  the  light 
and  a  small  hole  made  in  the  side  of  the  box  through  which 
the  observer  may  examine  the  egg.    If  no  cloudiness  is  seen 
in  the  egg  it  is  fresh.     Examine  a  number  of  eggs  by  this 
method. 

(c)  Let  each  pupil  break  open  an  egg  in  a  saucer  and 
note  the  following  points  in  its  structure:     The  germinal 
disc,  which  appears  as  a  light  colored  spot  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  egg  and  contains  the  life  principle  of  the  yolk. 
It  should  be  noted  here  that  the  egg  with  its  white  and  yolk 
is  a  single  cell ;  the  egg  of  the  ostrich  being  the  largest  single 
cell  in  animal  or  plant  life.    Note  the  whitish  cords  of  denser 
albumin  which  serve  to  keep  the  yolk  properly  suspended  in 
the  white  of  the  egg.    Note  the  clear  watery  appearance  of 
the  white  of  the  egg.     This  is  albumin,  the  food  in  liquid 
form  upon  which  the  young  chick  lives  while  in  the  shell. 
The  chemical  composition  of  the  egg  is  as  follows :     Shell, 
10.7%;    albumin,    11.9%;    fats,    12.8%;    salt,    7%;    water, 
63.9%. 

(d)  For  this  part  of  the  study  each  pupil  should  have  a 
hard  boiled  egg.     Carefully  remove  the  shell,  piece  by  piece. 
Observe  the  air  space  and  the  two  membranes  beneath  the 
shell.     Cut  the  egg  lengthwise  through  the  middle.     Make  a 
drawing  of  the  section,   showing  all  the  points  mentioned 
under  (c). 

5.  Preservation  of  eggs.  Eefer  to  the  paragraph  in  the 
chapter  describing  the  method  of  preserving  eggs  by  means 
of  water-glass.  As  a  practical  exercise  in  this  study,  the 


POULTRY  213 

class  should  preserve  eggs  in  water-glass  according  to  the 
directions  given  until  the  method  is  familiar  to  all. 

6.  House  plans.     Students  should  sketch  in  their  note- 
books plans  of  the  poultry  house  on  the  home  farm,  and 
other  plans  of  modern  poultry  houses,  showing  the  essential 
requirements  for  good  poultry  house  construction. 

7.  Judging1  poultry.    Bring  as  many  samples  of  chickens 
to  the  laboratory  as  possible,  and  drill  in  naming  the  external 
parts  of  the  chicken's  body  as  a  preparation  to  the  more 
difficult  work  of  using  the  score-card.    Use  the  state  score- 
card  in  practical  scoring  of  poultry  at  hand. 

8.  Writing  an  advertisement.    Each  student  should  write 
a  suitable  advertisement  for  strictly  fresh  table   eggs   for 
sale  to  retail  trade.    Make  it  for  a  business  card  two  by  four 
inches.     Neatness  and  facts  are  the  two  points  to  be  given 
special  care  in  writing  such  an  advertisement. 


PART  III 
FARM  BUSINESS  AND  LIFE 

CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 

The  fanner  a  business  man.  Farming  must  be  considered 
not  only  as  a  productive  industry,  but  as  a  business  and  a 
mode  of  life.  In  the  early  days  of  farm  life  the  farmer 
raised  about  everything  his  family  needed.  The  village 
store  supplied  his  extra  needs,  and  a  few  dollars  a  year 
sufficed  to  meet  all  expenses.  With  the  improved  methods 
of  agriculture  now  coming  thick  and  fast,  the  farmer  needs 
more  money.  He  must  produce  more,  buy  more,  and  sell 
more.  All  these  changes  demand  that  the  successful  farmer 
be  a  business  man.  He  must  organize  the  farm,  as  do  busi- 
ness men  of  other  large  lines,  into  a  successful  business 
enterprise.  The  average  land  owner  of  the  Middle  West 
has  as  large  an  investment  as  the  city  business  man.  Suc- 
cessful business  men  are  not  easily  made.  There  seems  to 
be  a  certain  native  business  sense  born  with  some  men, — 
yet  a  business  training  in  the  principles  and  methods  of 
good  business  helps  to  make  the  farmer  a  better  manager, 
as  much  so  as  such  training  contributes  to  success  in  other 
business  careers.  Common  sense  business  ability  combined 

214 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  215 

with  experience,  scientific  knowledge  of  plant  and  animal 
production,  manual  and  mechanical  skill,  and  hard  work 
are  the  requirements  for  a  successful  farmer. 

The  farmer's  labor  income.  Labor  incomes  of  farmers 
are  not  usually  large,  but  they  are  measures  of  the  farm's 
efficiency.  Studies  have  been  iriade  of  farm  incomes  over 
various  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  the  best  regions  the 
farmer's  labor  income  rarely  averages  over  $600.  Besides 
this,  the  farmer  makes  interest  on  his  capital,  and  has  a 
house  and  farm  products  in  addition. 

Some  thoughts  for  the  farm  boy.  Of  course  not  every 
farm  boy  should  choose  farming  as  a  vocation,  but  every 
boy  should  think  twice  before  deciding  to  leave  the  farm. 
The  farm  boy  has  a  good  training  for  agriculture,  and  many 
a  city  youth  envies  this  opportunity  to  choose  an  agricultural 
career.  High  salaries  paid  in  cities  are  misleading,  and, 
when  the  cost  of  living  is  taken  into  account,  the  salaries 
often  dwindle  to  low  figures.  Farming  is  not  easy  work,  but 
it  assures  a  competence,  a  freedom  from  economic  disturb- 
ances, a  healthful  life,  and  an  opportunity  to  enjoy  all  that 
is  best  in  the  world.  If  one  is  to  be  a  farmer  of  the  twen- 
tieth century,  he  should  prepare  for  the  business.  An  agri- 
cultural education  given  in  a  good  four-year  high-school 
course  or  in  a  good  agricultural  college  is  desirable  in  pre- 
paring a  young  man  for  the  business  of  farming  as  it  will 
be  carried  on  in  the  next  decade. 

Some  problems  in  farm  management.  It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  this  brief  course  to  teach  much  about  farm  business. 
Merely  to  introduce  the  student  to  some  of  the  problems 


216  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

of  farm  management  should  give  ideas  of  the  importance 
and  of  the  value  of  the  business  side  of  farming,  and  lead 
to  a  further  study  in  more  specialized  courses. 

(a)  The  first  large  problem  is  the  type  of  agriculture  to 
carry  on,  for  this  will  determine  the  capital,  labor,  equip- 
ment, and  land  investment.    Shall  the  type  be  general  farm- 
ing, live-stock  farming,  grain  farming,  fruit  farming,  truck 
farming,  or  the  more  specialized  types  such  as  hog  raising, 
wheat  farming,  apple  growing,  poultry  raising,  etc.?     Cli- 
mate, soil,  topography,  transportation,  markets,  capital,  labor 
supply,  and  the  personal  desires  of  the  farmer  will  all  be 
factors  in  making  a  choice. 

(b)  A  second  large  problem  is  whether  the  farmer  shall 
do  intensive  farming  on  fewer  acres  and  permanently  main- 
tain his  soil  fertility,  or  whether  he  shall  do  extensive  farm- 
ing,— mining  the  soil's  fertility  to  get  the  largest  crop  pos- 
sible from  as  large  an  acreage  as  possible,  with  no  considera- 
tion for  the  permanency  of  the  soil's  fertility.     This  often 
becomes  a  real  problem  to  the  man  trying  to  pay  off  a 
mortgage  on  a  large  farm  in  a  few  years. 

(c)  The  rotation  of  crops  to  utilize  the  maximum  of  land 
yielding  profitable  crops  each  year,  and  still  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  is  a  practical  problem  constantly  before' 
the  farmer. 

(d)  The  amount  and  kind  of  live  stock  to  keep  is  a  prob- 
lem in  most  farm  business.     Whether  to  sell  the  grain  and 
hay  or  to  feed  it  to  live  stock,  how  much  feed  it  will  take, 
whether  to  buy  feeders,  or  to  raise  one's  own  stock,  are  live 
questions  in  farm  management. 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  217 

(e)  The  balancing  of  rations,  the  maintenance  of  feeding 
standards,  the  keeping  of  records  of  animal  achievement  and 
production,  the  cost  of  feed  stuffs,  the  housing  and  general 
care  of  animals,  the  improvement  of  breeds,  are  all  problems 
of  live-stock  farming. 

(f )  The  amount  of  capital  to  invest  in  farm  buildings  and 
machinery  in  order  to  have  both  convenience  and  comfort 
as  well  as  profitable  money  returns  is  another  question. 

(g)  The   employment   of   sufficient   reliable   labor  when 
needed  is  a  difficult  farm  problem.    Whether  to  plan  for  spe- 
cial or  steady  labor,  how  best  to  utilize  the  labor,  what  to 
pay,   etc.,  are  labor  problems  constantly  recurring  on  the 
farm. 

(h)  The  lay-out  of  the  farm  and  the  arrangement  of 
lots,  fields,  and  buildings  is  a  problem  of  no  small  concern. 
Upon  the  proper  lay-out  depends  much  of  the  economy  in 
labor,  equipment,  and  time  in  operation,  as  well  as  the  gen- 
eral beauty  of  the  farm's  appearance. 

(i)  The  general  question  of  keeping  books  connected  with 
the  buying  and  selling  as  well  as  with  the  records  of  crops 
and  animals,  is  a  problem  too  often  neglected  by  the  busy 
farmer,  who  should  employ  better  business  methods. 

Marketing.  The  marketing  of  farm  products  is  as  much 
a  part  of  the  business  of  farming  as  the  production  of  the 
crops.  It  is  not  altogether  an  individual  problem  to  find  a 
successful  market,  but  often  a  community  or  public  ques- 
tion. If  products  are  stored  or  held  for  higher  prices,  al- 
lowance must  be  made  for  cost  of  handling,  insurance,  shrink- 
i 

age,  etc.     In  most  cases,  wherever  it  is  feasible,  it  pays  to 


218  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

hold  products  for  the  month  when  the  market  prices  of 
the  products  are  the  highest.  The  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  "Washington,  D.  C.,  sends  free  on  re- 
quest the  Crop  Reporter,  and  this  publication  is  of  great 
value  in  all  marketing  of  farm  products.  The  question  of 
marketing  is  how  to  sell, — whether  to  sell  direct  to  the  con- 
sumer or  to  commission  men  and  distributing  agencies.  Direct 
marketing  of  farm  products  is  likely  to  develop  only  through 
cooperation  and  farm  organization.  "When  farmers  and  con- 
sumers are  properly  organized,  direct  buying  and  selling  can 
be  carried  on  and  some  of  the  unnecessary  costs  of  handling 
eliminated.  Express  companies  and  the  parcel-post  system 
are  doing  effective  leadership  in  some  localities  in  bringing 
producers  and  consumers  together  in  retail  marketing.  Grain 
elevator  companies  and  large  truck  and  fruit  farmers  have 
solved  some  of  the  problems  of  marketing  by  pooling  their 
interests  together  and  selling  through  their  own  paid  agents. 
Products  should  never  be  sent  to  an  unknown  commission 
man.  "Whatever  the  system  of  marketing  may  be,  certain 
principles  should  always  be  observed  in  making  the  selling 
of  farm  products  a  success.  The  goods  should  be  honestly 
graded,  measured,  and  labeled.  The  products  to  be  sold  in 
small  quantities  should  be  put  up  in  clean,  neat,  and  attractive 
packages,  and  a  reputation  should  be  established  for  the  sale 
of  first-class  plant  or  animal  products.  When  these  principles 
are  followed,  the  market  seeks  out  the  farmer,  and  his  suc- 
cess is  more  certain. 

Farm  records  and  accounts.     Every  farmer  keeps  some 
simple  account  of  his  business,  if  it  is  nothing  more  than 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 


219 


keeping  track  of  who  owes  him  and  whom  he  owes.  It 
becomes  a  simple  matter  of  arithmetic  to  keep  books,  record- 
ing debits  and  credits.  Men  in  the  more  up-to-date  business 
of  farming  are  doing  more  than  mere  bookkeeping ;  they  are 
keeping  careful  cost  accounts  and  other  records  for  the  pur- 
pose of  learning  how  to  conduct  the  business  more  efficiently. 
Every  farmer  can  make  some  estimate  of  costs  and  what 
things  are  paying  him.  There  are  many  kinds  of  records 
that  are  desirable  on  farms,  such  as  milk  records  of  indi- 
vidual cows,  feeding  records,  breeding  records,  crop  yields, 
weather  records,  orchard  records,  drainage  maps,  perform- 
ance records  of  animals,  etc. 

In  all  simple  bookkeeping  use  the  left  hand  page  of  the 
book  for  debits,  and  the  right  hand  page  for  credits. 


Enter  on  the  left  hand  page  cash 
paid  by  you  to  the  account, 
goods  sold  by  you,  work  done 
by  you,  or  any  item  for  which 
you  are  not  paid. 


Enter  on  the  right  hand  page 
cash  paid  to  you  by  the  ac- 
count, goods  delivered  to  you, 
or  any  items  for  which  you 
must  pay. 


The  following  are  some  examples  of  accounts  and  records 
advisable  in  farm  business. 
1.    A  personal  account  with  a  hired  man. 


Harry   Farrington 
Commenced  work  April  1,  1915 — at 


a  month 


April  11  Cash $10.00 

"  30  Cash 40.00 

May  3  Cash 8.50 

"  15  Cash..  .  20.00 


May  1  One  month's  work, 

April $50.00 

June  1  One  month's  work, 

May  .  .  50.00 


220  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

An  annual  inventory  should  be  taken  of  the  farm  each 
year.  Early  in  the  spring  is  usually  the  best  time  to  do  this. 
Such  an  inventory  should  list  and  give  amounts  and  values 
of  every  detail  of  value  about  the  farm.  If  the  values  are 
kept  in  columns  so  that  the  same  page  may  be  used  for  sev- 
eral years  without  having  to  rewrite  the  items,  the  taking  of 
the  annual  inventory  becomes  a  simple  matter.  The  keep- 
ing of  receipts  and  expenses  is  of  considerable  help  in  the 
farm  business.  It  is  a  good  practice  for  boys  and  girls  to 
keep  lists  of  receipts  and  expenses  and  thus  form  habits  of 
thrift  and  economy.  Moreover,  because  farmers  do  not  keep 
accounts  of  expenses  and  receipts  from  their  various  enter- 
prises they  simply  go  on  guessing  as  to  what  is  most  profit- 
able from  year  to  year. 

2.  An  account  with  a  potato  crop.  (Taken  from  War- 
ren's Farm  Management.) 

Potatoes — 1911 — 14  acres — (Lefthuid  page) 

May    20    Manure   30   T.   at   $1.50 $45.00 

"      23     6  oz.  Corrosive  Sublimate 60 

June    1    4  oz.  "  "        30 

"      12    6  Ib.  Paris  Green 1.32 

July  13  Seed  Potatoes— 160  bu.  at  .45c 72.00 

"  13  75  Ib.  Arsenate  of  lead 6.75 

"  21  50   "            "         "      "     4.50 

"  21  35    "             "          "       "     3.15 

Mar.  31    Use  of  land— 14  a.  at  $5.00 70.00 

828.5  hr.  man  labor  at  20c 165.70 

903  hrs.  horse  labor  at  15c 135.45 

903  hrs.  machinery    at    .05c 45.15 


Total    $549.92 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 


221 


Potatoes — 1911 — 14  acres   (Righthand  page) 


Oct 

23 

226  bu   potatoes 

$136.00 

« 

26 

510   "          "           

316.20 

Nov 

3 

241    "           "         

261.02 

March 

31 

Seed  saved   90  bu.  at  $1.00  

90.00 

Saved  for  home  use   16  bu              . 

9.60 

Estimated  value  of  manure  left  in  soil  

20.00 

Total    

$832.82 

549.92 

Gain    . 

..$282.90 

3.    An  account  with  chickens. 


Six  Hens 


May    1 

Lumber  for 

House.$3.20 

May    30 

June  2 

Feed 

75 

June  30 

"     30 

Corn-meal 

.    .  .  .       2  40 

July   30 

Aug    1 

Corn  

3.00 

Oct.       1 

Oct.     10 

$9.35 

Oct.     30 

Profit  .  . 

10.05 

$19.40 

Egg  Sale $  2.50 

"  1.80 

"  2.10 

Young  Chicks...  6.00 
"  ...  3.00 

Eggs  Used 4.00 

$19.40 


No  special  forms  are  needed  for  farm  records.  An  ordinary 
account  book  ruled  with  places  for  dates,  items,  and  money 
columns  will  answer.  As  many  details  as  possible  should 
be  entered  into  the  item  column  to  make  the  accounts  most 
valuable.  The  whole  subject  of  farm  accounts  leads  one 
easily  into  complexities  that  call  for  special  treatment,  but 
in  this  brief  study  the  student  is  merely  introduced  to  the 
subject  and  urged  to  adopt  rational  systems  of  accounting 
when  he  assumes  the  business  of  farm  management. 


222 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


1.     FORM  FOR  FARM  INVENTORY 
Date . . 


Items 


No. 


Amount 


Value 


Land — acres 

Buildings 

Horses 

Cattle 

Hogs 

Sheep 

Poultry 

Machinery  (listed) . . . 
Farm  Crops  (listed) . . 


NOTE — Fill  into  above  columns  where  the  items  will  apply. 
2.     FORM  FOR  RECORD  OF  SALE  OF  CROPS 


Date  Sold 

To  Whom  Sold 

Kind  of 
Crop 

Amount 
Sold 

Price 

Total 
Received 

THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  223 

3.     FORM  FOR  ANIMALS  BOUGHT  AND  SOLD 


BOUGHT 

SOLD 

Date 

From 
Whom 

Animal 

Paid 

Date 

To 
Whom 

Animal 

Re- 
ceived 

4.     FORM  FOR  EXPENSE  ACCOUNTS 


Date 
Paid 

To  Whom  Paid 

For 
What 

Amount 

Price 

Total 

224  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  must  the  successful  farmer  be  a  good  business 
man? 

2.  What  are  the  sources  of  income  for  the  farmer? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  attractions  of  farming  as  a  vocation. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  problems  of  farm  management 
most  considered  on  your  father's  farm? 

5.  Why  is  it  as  essential  in  the  farming  business  to  have 
a  good  market  as  it  is  to  grow  the  products? 

6.  What  constitutes  a  good  market? 

7.  How  is  the  parcel  post  aiding  the  farmers  in  marketing? 

8.  Give  some  principles  essential  to  successful  marketing 
of  farm  produce.     Criticize  the  markets  and  the  marketing 
in  your  locality. 

9.  Why  is  it  helpful  in  the  business  of  farming  to  keep 
records  and  accounts? 

10.  What  are    some    records    and    accounts    the    farmer 
should  keep? 

11.  What  is  a  farm  inventory? 

12.  What  records  and  accounts  are  kept  on  your  home 
farm? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Farm  income.  Calculate  the  labor  income  on  the  fol- 
lowing farm  year  records,  allowing  5  per  cent  interest  on 
the  capital  invested: 

Farm  contains  80  acres  valued  at  $150  per  acre. 

Two  horses  worth  $200  each. 

Three  milk  cows  worth  $50  each. 

Three  sows  worth  $25  each. 

Thirty  pigs  worth  $400. 

One  hundred  chickens  worth  $75. 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  225 

House  and  farm  buildings  worth  $4,000. 
Farm  implements  worth  $1,000. 
Forty  acres  in  corn  yielding  60  bushels  per  acre. 
Fifteen  acres  in  wheat  yielding  20  bushels  per  acre. 
Five  acres  in  yard  and  gardens. 
Ten  acres  in  alfalfa  yielding  four  tons  per  acre. 
Ten  acres  in  pasture. 

One  man  does  practically  all  the  work;  there  are  four  in  the  family. 
Three  calves  are  sold  at  $20  each. 
Twenty-four  pigs  are  sold  at  $250. 
Fifty  chickens  are  sold  at  $1.00  each. 

Eggs  and  butter  keep  up  the  grocery  bill  and  afford  spending 
money  for  household  necessities. 

Four  hundred  bushels  of  corn  are  sold  at  60  cents. 
Two  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  of  wheat  are  sold  at  $1.00. 
Twenty  tons  of  alfalfa  are  sold  at  $20.00  per  ton. 
All  feeds  and  seed  are  raised  on  the  farm. 

Not  counting  the  rental  value  of  the  homestead  or  the 
value  of  food  produced  on  the  farm  for  family  use,  what  is 
the  farmer's  labor  income,  after  deducting  5  per  cent  for 
interest  on  the  capital  invested? 

2.  Record  of  a  crop  rotation.  The  following  is  an  actual 
record  of  a  ten-acre  field  in  a  four-year  crop  rotation.* 

(1)  Clover  sown  in  wheat  in  March. 

Number  of  bushels 1 

Cost  of  seed $6.50 

Cost  of  labor 1.25 

(2)  Wheat  cut  in  July.    Threshed  and  sold. 

Yield,  bushels 200 

Value  of  yield $160.00 

Total  cost  of  labor 17.50 

(3)  Pasture  clover  in  fall. 

Number  head  of  stock 5 

Number  of  months 2 

Income  from  pasture $12.00 


*Taken  from  the  Author's  One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Agriculture. 


226  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

(4)  Clover  hay  harvested  next  June. 

Number  of  tons 12 

Price  per  ton $  5.00 

Cost  of  labor 12.00 

(5)  Clover  seed  crop  in  fall.    Threshed  and  sold. 

Number  of  bushels 15 

Value  of  yield $90.00 

Cost  of  labor 20.00 

(6)  Plow  and  plant  corn,  following  spring. 

Cost  of  labor  $10.00 

Cost  of  seed  (iy2  bushels) 1.00 

From  cultivations,  cost  of  labor 7.50 

(7)  Seeded  wheat  in  corn,  September. 

Seed  cost  (1%  bushels  per  acre) $12.00 

Cost  of  labor 4.00 

(8)  Corn  harvested  in  fall. 

Number  bushels 500 

Value  of  yield $200.50 

Cost  of  labor 15.00 

Calculate  total  cost  and  receipts  of  this  rotation,  and  the 
net  gain  on  one  acre  for  one  year.  Is  it  a  good  return? 

Arrange  the  items  of  this  record  into  columns  on  the  proper 
debit  and  credit  pages  of  a  book  as  it  should  appear  in  a 
bookkeeping  account. 

3.  The  farm  inventory.-    Let  each  pupil  make  an  inven- 
tory of  the  home  farm  and  its  equipment,  and,  after  the  total 
value  of  the  property  has  been  estimated,  find  the  necessary 
net  income  in  order  to  realize  5  per  cent  on  the  capital 
invested. 

4.  Business  forms.     Pupils  should  drill  on  the  making 
of  receipts,  notes,  checks,  simple  rent  and  labor  contracts, 
and  business  letters. 


CHAPTER  XV 
COUNTRY  LIFE  ORGANIZATIONS 

An  unorganized  industry.  If  King  Solomon  were  living 
today  he  might  say,  "Of  the  making  of  many  organiza- 
tions there  is  no  end,  and  much  meeting  together  is  a 
weariness  to  the  flesh. "  This  would  be  true  of  urban  life 
perhaps,  but  not  of  rural  life,  for  the  country  people  are 
not  over-organized.  It  is  not  difficult  to  find  hundreds  of 
farmers  within  community  bounds  who  do  not  belong  to 
any  organization.  This  ought  not  to  be  the  case,  for  the 
best  interests  of  the  farmer  and  his  community  are  con- 
served when  he  is  living  and  working  in  cooperation  with 
his  fellows.  The  unorganized  industries  are  sure  to  fall 
prey  to  the  organized  ones,  and  it  will  be  an  evil  day  for 
all  when  rural  life  in  all  its  aspects  becomes  subservient 
to  other  organized  industries  because  agricultural  interests 
are  unorganized  and  the  fanners'  individualistic  tendencies 
prevail. 

Organization  an  evidence  of  progress.  One  of  the  signs 
that  any  form  of  life  is  advanced  in  its  development  is  its 
ability  to  cooperate  in  its  parts  and  work  in  any  organized 
capacity.  This  may  be  illustrated  in  the  animal  body.  Note 
the  differences,  for  instance,  between  the  body  of  a  sponge 

227 


228  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

and  that  of  a  man.  The  sponge  is  made  up  of  cells  each 
living  a  separate  and  independent  existence,  with  little  or 
no  cooperation  with  the  rest.  It  is  a  form  of  life  poorly 
organized,  and  hence  low  in  the  scale  of  development.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  body  of  the  man  is  so  highly  organized 
that  each  cell  cooperates  with  the  others,  making  possible 
the  advanced  stage  of  development  we  see  in  the  human 
body.  This  principle  is  true  of  mental  life.  The  little  child 
has  not  progressed  mentally  to  that  stage  where  he  can 
cooperate  with  his  fellows  even  in  organized  play,  while  the 
adult,  because  of  larger  growth  and  a  more  advanced  stage 
of  mental  development,  can  cooperate  in  all  forms  of  human 
activities.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  a  man  or  a 
community  that  does  not  cooperate  in  social  activities,  that 
is  not  able  to  work  in  an  organized  capacity,  is  in  the  sponge 
stage  of  life,  or  in  the  child  stage  of  mental  development. 

Our  country  folks  must  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of 
the  century  in  all  its  human  interests,  and  one  evidence 
and  means  of  such  progress  is  the  cooperation  of  rural  forces 
in  various  country  life  organizations.  This  evidence  of 
progress  is  seen  now  on  every  side,  and  country  life  organiza- 
tions are  forming  in  every  state  and  county.  The  agricultural 
class  of  the  high  school  would  be  taking  a  progressive  step 
to  lead  in  the  organization  of  a  Country  Life  or  Agricultural 
Club  in  the  school,  using  the  plan  suggested  in  the  appendix 
of  this  book  as  a  basis  for  organization.  Such  a  club,  organ- 
ized among  high-school  students  who  are  interested  in  agri- 
culture and  country  life,  would  afford  excellent  opportuni- 
ties for  such  training  as  will  better  fit  the  boys  and  girls  to 


COUNTRY  LIFE  ORGANIZATIONS  229 

become  leaders  in  country  life  organizations  when  they  go 
out  to  live  the  life  of  good  citizens  of  the  open  country. 

The  Grange.  One  of  the  oldest  and  best  rural  life  or- 
ganizations in  this  country  is  the  Grange,  or  the  Order  of 
Patrons  of  Husbandry.  The  idea  and  plan  of  this  organiza- 
tion originated  in  the  mind  of  Olfver  H.  Kelley,  a  Minnesota 
farmer,  in  1867,  while  on  a  trip  through  the  southern  states, 
lie  had  been  sent  by  President  Johnson  to  see  what  might 
be  done  to  rebuild  the  devastated  agriculture  of  that  region. 
On  his  return  to  Washington,  the  organization  was  formed, 
and  from  that  day  to  this  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry  have 
extended  their  organization  and  good  service  to  rural  life 
into  almost  every  state  in  the  Union,  having  a  membership 
at  present  of  nearly  a  million  men,  women  and  young  people. 

The  purpose  of  the  organization  is  to  promote  the  inter- 
ests of  agriculture  in  every  legitimate  and  possible  way, 
educationally,  legislatively,  cooperatively,  and  socially,  with 
a  view  to  developing  a  better  manhood  and  womanhood  on 
American  farms. 

The  Grange  has  been  an  important  factor  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  agricultural  colleges,  high  schools,  and  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  in  elementary  schools.  Kural  mail  deliv- 
ery, the  parcel  post,  the  patent-free  sewing  machine,  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  pure  food  laws,  better  tax  laws,  and 
scores  of  other  measures  of  state  and  national  value  to  agri- 
culture and  country  life,  are  the  products  of  active  Grange 
advocacy. 

It  is  a  secret  organization,  and  has  its  national,  state  and 


230  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

subordinate  chapters  or  granges  well  organized  and  closely 
bound  together.  The  Grange  is  a  live  institution,  and  its 
growth  is  of  a  permanent  character. 

Farmers'  Institutes.  The  Farmers'  Institute  has  been  in 
existence  for  over  half  a*  century  and,  like  the  Grange,  has 
demonstrated  its  usefulness  to  country  life.  The  Institute 
carries  on  an  educational  extension  work.  There  are  strong 
state  and  county  organizations  and  national  officers  with 
advisory  relationship,  but  there  are  no  well-organized  local 
community  groups,  meeting  often  as  regular  clubs.  Most  of 
the  work  is  done  in  annual  gatherings  of  agricultural  peo- 
ple, and  the  organization  offers  opportunity  for  intercourse, 
for  agricultural  and  household  science  instruction,  for  form- 
ing acquaintances,  and  for  promoting  a  class  consciousness. 
The  Farmers'  Institutes  have  popularized  agricultural  edu- 
cation, and  have  had  a  large  part  in  the  new  agricultural 
awakening. 

The  American  Society  of  Equity.  This  is  a  comparatively 
new  organization.  It  was  incorporated  under  the  laws  of 
Indiana  in  1902.  It  has  extended  its  membership  into  sev- 
eral states,  and  has  had  much  influence  in  determining  the 
prices  of  farm  products.  It  has  a  local,  county,  state,  and 
national  organization.  Its  objects  are  set  forth  as  economic, 
educational,  scientific,  protective,  social,  pacific,  and  pro- 
motive.  The  American  Society  of  Equity  bids  fair  to  be- 
come a  strong  factor  in  rural  life  organizations. 

The  Farmers '  Union.  The  Farmers '  Union  is  an  organiza- 
tion especially  strong  in  the  South.  The  organization  was 
formed  in  the  interests  of  farm  life  by  Newt  Gresham  in  the 


COUNTRY  LIFE  ORGANIZATIONS  231 

State  of  Texas  in  1902.  The  Union  has  had  a  rapid  growth. 
Every  southern  state  and  many  northern  states  have  Farm- 
ers' Unions,  and  the  organization  claims  a  membership  of 
nearly  three  million.  The  Union  has  cooperated  with  labor 
unions,  and  seems  to  have  objects  and  aims  similar  to -the 
great  labor  union  organizations,  "so  far  as  they  will  apply 
to  agricultural  interests.  It  pledges  that  efforts  shall  be 
made  to  preserve  the  common  "rights  and  liberties,"  to  give 
preference  to  the  products  of  labor  that  is  organized,  and  to 
have  its  officers  cooperate  with  those  of  labor  for  social,  legis- 
lative, and  political  amelioration. 

Country  life  clubs.  Under  various  names,  such  as  coun- 
try life  clubs,  farmers'  clubs,  agricultural  clubs,  community 
clubs,  etc.,  rural  people  have  formed  local  organizations. 
These  organizations  usually  include  the  whole  families  of 
the  farmers.  They  meet  regularly,  have  programs  of  music, 
recitations,  discussions  of  farm,  home,  and  educational  top- 
ics, and  frequently  lecturers  from  the  outside  are  invited  to 
take  part  in  the  programs.  Various  forms  of  refreshments 
are  often  served  during  a  social  hour  preceding  or  following 
the  club's  program. 

All  such  local  organizations,  by  whatever  name  known, 
may  now  become  affiliated  with  the  National  Country  Life 
Club  by  merely  notifying  the  secretary,  who,  at  present,  is 
the  author  of  this  book.  Such  affiliation  requires  no  fees 
or  obligations,  but  gives  the  local  club  the  advantage  of 
being  united  with  larger  groups  from  which  it  may  receive 
inspiration  and  guidance  through  its  publications.  One 
promising  development  of  country  life  clubs  is  the  Collegiate 


232  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Country  Life  Chib,  an  organization  now  growing  in  colleges, 
normals,  and  other  schools,  whose  membership  is  composed 
of  college  men  and  women  who  are  to  become  the  leaders  of 
country  life  institutions  and  interests  when  they  leave  school. 

Boys  and  girls  agricultural  clubs.  No  study  of  country 
life  organizations  would  be  complete  without  looking  into 
the  growth,  work,  and  development  of  the  boys  and  girls 
club  movement.  There  is  a  national  leader  directing  this 
work,  and  nearly  all  the  states  have  state  leaders  cooperating. 
County  superintendents  of  schools,  county  agricultural  ad- 
visors, and  other  local  leaders  are  active  in  the  organization 
and  direction  of  the  boys  and  girls  agricultural  clubs.  These 
clubs  are  organized  to  promote  better  agriculture  and  home 
economics,  and  usually  center  about  some  form  of  contest. 
Corn-growing,  tomato-raising,  canning,  gardening,  pig-rais- 
ing, and  poultry-raising  contests  are  carried  on  by  these 
clubs,  and  the  possibilities  of  extending  their  activities  into 
all  phases  of  farm  and  home  life  are  unlimited. 

Agricultural  Improvement  Associations.  One  of  the  lat- 
est and  most  efficient  forms  of  a  country  life  organization  is 
the  Agricultural  Improvement  Association,  forming  in  hun- 
dreds of  counties  over  the  country  in  every  state  in  the 
Union.  The  county  is  the  unit  of  organization,  and  the 
securing  of  a  county  agricultural  advisor  for  the  Association 
is  the  first  important  work  of  the  organization.  A  member- 
ship fee  of  ten  dollars  a  year  for  a  period  of  three  or  five 
years  is  usually  required,  and  the  membership  is  limited  to 
between  three  hundred  and  four  hundred  persons.  Farmers 
and  business  men  of  the  towns  of  the  county  become  members 


COUNTRY  LIFE  ORGANIZATIONS  233 

of  the  Association.  Officers  are  elected,  constitution  and  by- 
laws are  drawn  up,  and  an  advisor  is  employed. 

The  main  aims  of  the  Association,  working  through  the 
advisor,  are  economic,  looking  to  improved  agricultural  con- 
ditions ;  but  more  and  more  these  associations  are  concerning 
themselves  with  the  social,  educational,  and  other  rural  life 
problems  needing  the  cooperation  which  such  a  strong  organ- 
ization can  render. 

The  county  advisors  usually  work  under  state  leaders,  and 
these,  in  cooperation  with  the  State  College  of  Agriculture 
and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  tie  up  the 
whole  system  into  one  of  the  strongest  and  best  financed 
and  manned  farmers'  organization  in  the  country.  The  pas- 
sage of  the  Lever  Bill  in  1915  made  available  a  large  federal 
fund  to  be  distributed  to  the  counties  organizing  agricultural 
improvement  associations,  supplementing  the  fund  raised 
by  the  farmers  of  the  county. 

Some  activities  of  country  life  organizations.  The  his- 
tory of  farmers'  organizations  shows  many  lines  of  activities, 
ranging  from  local  community  cooperation  in  economic,  so- 
cial, and  educational  interests,  to  state  and  national  influence 
in  constructive  legislation  for  rural  progress.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  more  common  forms  of  local  activities  carried 
on  by  farmers'  organizations: 

1.  Providing  entertaining  and  instructive  programs  for 
community  meetings. 

2.  Cooperating  with  the  Extension  Departments  of  Col- 
leges of  Agriculture  in  arranging  short  courses  in  agriculture 
and  household  science  for  the  community. 


234  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Organizing  and  directing  boys  and  girls  agricultural 
clubs  and  contests. 

4.  Having  farmers'  picnics,  fall  festivals,  and  special  day 
celebrations. 

5.  Putting  on  lecture  courses  for  the  community. 

6.  Cooperative  buying  of  such  farm  supplies  as  limestone, 
rock  phosphate,   seed,  spray  material,   expensive  farm  ma- 
chinery, etc. 

7.  Purchasing  pure-bred  sires  in  cooperative  live-stock  im- 
provement. 

8.  Cooperative  selling  of  fruit,  grain,  hay,  animals,  and 
other  farm  products. 

9.  Improvement   of  roads,   and  the  beautifying   of   tne 
countryside. 

10.  Passing  resolutions  and  taking  united  stands  on  ques- 
tions of  local,  state,  or  national  policies  affecting  the  farmers' 
interests,  and  urging  cooperative  action  of  all  farmers'  or- 
ganizations on  such  policies. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  have  not  farmers  been  so  well  organized  as  men 
of  other  leading  vocations? 

2.  What  influence  does  a  good  farmers'  organization  have 
upon  the  progress  of  the  community  and  rural  life  interests  ? 

3.  List  the  leading  country  life  organizations. 

4.  What   are  some   important  benefits  for   country  life 
which  have  been  brought  about  through  the  influence  of  farm- 
ers'  organizations? 

5.  How  are  county  agricultural  advisors  employed,  and 
what  are  some  of  their  duties? 


COUNTRY  LIFE  ORGANIZATIONS  235 

6.  What  activities  have  boys  and  girls  clubs  carried  on 
in  your  community? 

7.  Why  would  a  country  life  or  agricultural  club  be  a 
good  organization  for  our  high  school? 

8.  Describe  the  aims,  purposes,  and  work  of  the  farmers' 
organizations  you  know  most  about  from  actual  observation 
and  contact. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

RURAL  LIFE  PROGRESS 

Rural  institutions.  Rural  life  progress  is  made  in  rural 
institutions.  "When  we  study  the  changes  that  have  come 
about  in  recent  years  in  the  country,  we  must  look  into  the 
business  and  social  organizations,  the  country  home,  the  coun- 
try school,  rural  political  life,  and  the  country  church  to 
trace  the  progress  made.  These  institutions  have  always 
existed  in  the  country,  and  they  must  not  only  exist,  but 
progress,  if  there  is  to  be  a  permanent  and  satisfying  country 
life. 

The  farm.  The  farm  is  a  great  plant,  made  up  not  only 
of  land,  plants,  animals,  and  buildings,  but  of  human  life 
as  well.  It  is  an  institution  in  itself,  with  its  varied  forms 
of  life  and  activities.  In  a  larger  sense  than  the  factories, 
department  stores,  railroads,  and  other  great  industrial  aggre- 
gates, the  well-organized  farm  is  an  institution  demanding 
education,  work,  and  management,  and  admitting  of  progress 
in  all  of  its  departments  and  aspects.  The  progress  that  must 
be  made  in  agriculture  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  farm  in 
the  twentieth  century  will  be  along  the  lines  of  permanent 
soil  fertility,  improvement  of  plants  and  animals,  and  the 
control  of  insect  pests  and  plant  and  animal  diseases.  These 

236 


RURAL  LIFE  PROGRESS  237 

demands  can  never  be  met  except  through  the  application  of 
science  to  the  practical  work  of  the  farm. 

The  farm  home.  The  life  in  the  farm  home  is  more  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  vocation  of  the  bread  winners  than 
is  the  life  in  the  homes  where  other  vocations  are  carried  on. 
On  the  farm  every  member  of  tha  family  has  a  part  in  and 
knows  of  the  daily  activities  of  the  business  of  agriculture. 
With  the  progress  of  scientific  agriculture  must  come  prog- 
ress in  the  life  of  the  country  home.  The  present  genera- 
tion of  home  builders  must  make  the  country  home  more 
sanitary,  more  convenient,  and  more  beautiful.  There  must 
be  more  adequate  sewage  disposal,  so  that  filth  and  waste  may 
not  breed  disease  in  the  farm  home.  There  must  be  more 
modern  conveniences  in  the  home,  so  that  the  women  need 
not  wear  out  their  lives  by  avoidable  drudgery.  There  must 
be  more  art  in  the  country  home,  better  books,  better  pic- 
tures, better  music,  better  rural  architecture,  and  a  more 
beautiful  countryside  through  the  use  of  landscape  art  and 
the  materials  of  nature  so  abundantly  furnished. 

The  country  school.  Much  good  and  a  great  deal  of 
adverse  criticism  has  been  spoken  and  written  about  the  coun- 
try schools.  We  usually  think  of  the  country  schools  as  the 
one-room  institutions  planted  here  and  there  and  everywhere 
throughout  the  open  country.  Whatever  these  country  schools 
may  have  been  in  the  past,  they,  too,  must  fall  in  line  with 
the  progress  of  rural  life  in  the  twentieth  century  and  serve 
a  larger  purpose  for  the  people  of  the  country.  Some  of  the 
lines  of  progress  for  the  country  schools  are  the  consolidation 
of  the  small  districts  into  larger  units,  and  the  establishment 


238  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

of  high  schools  within  easy  reach  of  every  farm  home.  All 
this  implies  more  financial  support,  better  supervision,  and 
better  instruction.  Such  vocational  courses  as  agriculture, 
household  science,  manual  training,  business,  etc.,  will  be 
offered,  together  with  such  other  branches  of  study  as  will 
give  a  liberal  education  to  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  country. 
Furthermore,  these  schools  will  be  in  session  at  least  eleven 
months  in  the  year,  and  will  be  for  all  the  people  of  the 
community,  old  and  young  alike. 

The  roads.  So  important  are  the  roads  to  the  progress 
of  rural  life  that  we  may  discuss  them  briefly  along  with 
other  country  life  institutions.  No  arguments  are  needed  to 
prove  to  the  intelligent  and  unselfish  mind  that  good  country 
roads  are  essential  to  the  progress  of  all  rural  institutions. 
The  coming  of  the  automobile  has  had  much  to  do  with  the 
improvement  of  our  modern  roads.  It  remains  for  the  pres- 
ent generation  to  begin  the  great  work  of  building  hard  roads 
in  every  township  of  our  important  agricultural  regions.  Why 
should  not  every  acre  of  land  be  taxed  to  support  good  hard 
roads,  even  though  future  generations  be  bonded  to  meet  the 
indebtedness  ?  Both  present  and  future  generations  will  profit 
by  such  public  service  as  the  building  of  hard  roads. 

Another  large  task  for  the  present  generation  in  this  mat- 
ter of  road  building  is  to  provide  a  double  track  for  all  our 
railroads  and  traction  lines.  Such  road  building  as  here 
suggested  may  seem  too  momentous  a  task  to  think  of,  but, 
as  compared  with  other  large  public  services  which  our  fore- 
fathers have  done,  such  as  pioneering  a  new  country  and 
establishing  permanent  institutions,  the  building  of  good  roads 


RURAL  LIFE  PROGRESS  239 

would  be  only  one  duty  commensurate  with  the  privileges  and 
opportunities  of  the  present  day. 

Political  and  social  life.  The  progress  of  country  life 
institutions  depends  in  large  measure  upon  the  social  organ- 
ization and  political  control  affecting  rural  life.  The  laws 
and  their  enforcement  governing  schools,  roads,  taxation,  land, 
voting,  and  all  social  affairs  of  the  country,  contribute  directly 
to  the  progress  or  hindrance  of  these  matters  touching  coun- 
try people.  As  our  young  men  and  women  go  out  from  the 
new  country  schools  where  they  have  learned  to  love  the 
open  country  and  to  understand  its  needs  and  how  to  meet 
them  efficiently,  and  where  they  have  gained  an  education 
enabling  them  to  stand  among  men  of  all  vocations  on  equal 
terms,  then  voting  will  be  more  independent  and  intelligent, 
laws  v/ill  be  enacted  and  enforced  giving  better  justice  to 
country  life  interests,  and  political  and  social  life  will  be 
cleaner  and  more  elevating. 

The  country  church.  Last  but  not  least  among  the  num- 
ber of  the  country  life  institutions  to  share  in  the  progress 
of  our  century  is- the  country  church.  No  other  institution 
labors  so  unselfishly  for  the  conservation  of  all  the  better 
things  of  life  as  does  the  church.  The  country  church  may 
be  dead  or  dying  out  in  many  places,  but  if  rural  life  is  to 
prosper,  if  agriculture  is  to  become  permanent,  if  country 
life  institutions  are  to  progress,  then  the  country  church  must 
be  saved,  and  it,  too,  must  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of 
the  times.  In  this  progress  the  country  church  must  become 
a  community  serving  institution.  There  should  be  only  one 
country  church  in  the  community,  and  all  the  people  should 


240  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

unite  to  make  it  the  center  of  the  spiritual  life  of  the  com- 
munity. The  modern  country  church  throws  open  its  doors 
to  all  the  people  of  the  countryside.  To  it  they  come  for 
education,  inspiration,  social  culture,  vocational  guidance, 
religion,  and  all  the  good  things  that  the  Father  of  Life  has 
so  abundantly  made  possible  in  the  open  country. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  leading  country  life  institutions. 

2.  What  would  you  name  as  the  one  greatest  need  in 
bringing  about  the  next  step  in  the  progress  of : 

(a)  the  farm 

(b)  the  farm  home 

(c)  the  country  school 

(d)  the  roads 

(e)  political  life 

(f)  the  country  church 

3.  Which  of  these  institutions  has  progressed  most  and 
which  least  in  your  community? 


PART  IV 
HORTICULTURE 

CHAPTER  XVII 
FARM  FORESTRY 

Characteristics  of  trees.  Trees  are  the  most  prominent 
and  one  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  features  in 
the  living  vegetable  world.  Their  great  height,  their  long 
life,  and  their  form  distinguishes  them  from  other  plants. 
The  single  stem  or  trunk,  which  develops  more  strongly  than 
the  branches  into  which  it  divides  and  which  in  their  aggre- 
gate make  up  the  crown,  is  the  tree's  most  characteristic 
form.  The  tree  is  the  "whale"  of  the  vegetable  world  in 
size,  and  the  "man"  of  that  world  in  point  of  highest  devel- 
opment. 

Identifying  the  trees.  Before  we  can  go  far  into  the  study 
of  trees,  we  must  be  able  to  call  them  by  their  names.  We 
must  know  them  at  sight  as  we  know  our  friends.  It  may 
not  be  necessary  for  us  to  be  able  to  tell  just  how  we  know 
the  maple  from  the  ash  when  we  are  children — the  form,  fea- 
tures, and  general  appearances  will  guide — but  later  we  shall 
need  to  use  a  "key,"  based  on  structural  features  of  leaves 
or  other  parts  of  the  tree. 

Life  processes  of  the  tree.  The  two  great  life  processes 

241 


242  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

of  the  tree,  as  well  as  of  all  plants,  are  to  get  nourishment 
and  to  reproduce  its  kind.  The  tree  gets  its  food  from  the 
soil,  and  the  air  through  its  roots  and  leaves.  The  solid  food 
from  the  soil  must  go  into  solution  and  be  carried  upwards 
from  the  roots  through  the  sap-wood  to  the  leaves.  The  gas 
food  must  be  taken  in  through  the  leaves.  All  this  food,  the 
minerals  from  the  soil  and  the  carbon  from  the  air,  is  pre- 
pared for  the  different  parts  of  the  tree  in  the  leaves  by  the 
aid  of  the  sunlight.  The  prepared  food  is  then  carried  down- 
ward through  the  inner  soft  bark  to  where  it  is  needed  to 
make  root,  trunk,  branch,  leaf,  flower,  and  fruit.  Girdling 
a  tree,  therefore,  checks  this  downward  flow  of  food  and  not 
the  upward  flow  of  crude  sap. 

The  trees,  except  those  of  the  palm  tribe,  grow  in  girth 
by  adding  ring  upon  ring  of  wood  cells  to  their  trunks  and 
branches;  in  height,  not  by  lifting  the  whole  trunk  and 
crown,  but  by  adding  to  the  tips  of  the  twigs.  Trees  repro- 
duce by  seeds,  sprouts,  and  sometimes  by  cuttings. 

Structure.  A  tree,  like  every  other  living  thing,  is  com- 
posed of  tissues  made  up  of  minute  cells  varying  in  shape, 
size,  and  thickness  of  cell  wall.  The  bulk  of  the  bole  of  the 
tree  is  not  living  but  dead  tissue,  composed  of  empty  cells. 
For  this  reason  the  heart  of  a  tree  may  be  dead  and  the  tree 
continue  to  live  and  grow.  The  living  part  of  the  tree  trunk 
is  on  the  outside  of  the  wood,  between  bark  and  wood.  The 
growing  tissue  of  this  live  part  is  called  the  cambium.  Grow- 
ing cells  are  also  grouped  at  the  tips  of  roots  and  at  the  tips 
of  the  shoots.  The  thick  outer  bark  of  the  tree  is  dead  tissue 
which  sooner  or  later  loosens  and  sloughs  off.  In  the  center 


FARM  FORESTRY  243 

of  a  young  tree,  and  of  an  old  tree  whose  heart  has  not 
decayed,  is  the  pith,  soft,  thin- walled  cells  in  which  food  is 
stored.  The  pith  extends  in  radiating  rays  out  to  the  bark. 
In  a  cross  section  of  a  tree  we  can  see  pith,  pith  rays,  rings 
of  growth,  heart  wood,  sap  wood,  and  bark. 

TREE  SOCIETIES — THE  FOREST 

Forest  conditions.  Trees  grow  together  in  societies  and 
make  what  are  known  as  forest  conditions.  The  forest  has  a 
story  quite  different  from  that  of  a  single  tree.  Here  the 
trees  struggle  with  one  another  for  the  best  position,  like 
people  in  a  crowd  jostling  one  another  to  get  sight  of  some 
common  attraction  before  them.  In  the  forests  trees  struggle 
with  each  other  for  light,  food,  and  foothold,  resulting  in 
the  formation  of  forest  crowns,  forest  trunk  masses,  and  for- 
est floors.  The  ideal  forest  crown  has  all  its  tree  tops  touch- 
ing each  other,  so  as  to  completely  shade  the  ground  without 
overcrowding  any  single  tree;  the  wood  mass  has  clear, 
straight  boles  and  the  maximum  number  to  the  acre ;  and  the 
forest  floor  is  rich  in  leaf -mold  and  free  from  grass  and  fire- 
traps. 

The  wood  supply.  The  prime  importance  of  the  forest  to 
mankind  is  its  wood  supply.  Outside  of  food  products  no 
material  is  so  universally  used  as  wood.  Indeed,  civilization 
is  inconceivable  without  an  abundance  of  timber.  Wood  sur- 
rounds us  on  every  hand  as  a  convenience  or  a  necessity.  We 
require  wood  in  the  construction  of  our  homes.  It  serves 
to  ornament  them,  to  furnish  them,  and  to  heat  them.  For 


244  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

every  hundred  tons  of  coal  mined,  two  tons  of  mining  timber 
are  needed.  For  our  means  of  transportation  we  rely  mainly 
on  wood.  Millions  of  telephone  poles  are  needed  to  keep  up 
our  communications.  The  forest  furnishes  the  wood  for  all 
the  implements  of  the  farm,  and  for  all  vehicles  of  trans- 
portation there.  Lumber  is  not  the  only  product  of  the  forest. 
There  is  the  turpentine  of  the  pine,  the  paper  pulp  of  the 
spruce  and  poplar,  the  tan  bark  of  the  oak  and  hemlock,  the 
sugar  and  syrup  of  the  maple,  and  the  various  distilled  prod- 
ucts from  many  other  species.  The  alarming  fact  about  the 
use  of  forest  products  is  that  we  are  using  wood  three  times 
faster  than  it  is  growing. 

Forest  influences.  In  addition  to  serving  as  a  great  source 
of  wood  supply,  the  forest  exerts  certain  influences  on  human 
interests.  These  are  influences: 

1.  Upon  the  climatic  conditions  within  the  forest  area. 

2.  Upon  the  distribution  and  character  of  the  water  flow. 

3.  Upon  the  mechanical  condition  and  erosion  of  the  soil 
under  its  cover. 

4.  Upon  the  sanitary  and  esthetic  conditions  of  the  people. 
About  the  only  influence  the  forest  has  upon  climate  is  to 

keep  it  more  uniform  within  its  own  limits,  and  to  shelter  our 
homes  from  storms  and  winds.  The  forest's  greatest  influ- 
ence is  upon  the  distribution  and  character  of  the  water  flow. 
The  forest  crown  and  floor  catch  and  hold  the  rainfall,  and 
allow  it  to  sink  slowly  into  the  ground  to  supply  a  uniform 
flow  in  springs  and  streams,  at  the  same  time  preventing 
destructive  floods  and  excessive  soil  washes.  The  forest  air 
and  water  are  pure  and  healthful,  and  the  tired  city  dweller, 


FARM  FORESTRY  245 

as  well  as  the  free  country  man,  may  find  peaceful  rest  and 
happy  appreciation  of  nature  beneath  the  forest's  kindly 
shelter. 

THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

The  conservation  policy.  Destructive  lumbering  and 
wastful  use  have  wrought  havoc  with  the  forests.  Forest  fires 
have  swept  over  thousands  of  acres  of  timber  land,  destroy- 
ing not  only  the  trees,  both  old  and  young,  but  even  eating 
out  the  rich  soil,  the  accumulation  of  ages.  Then  follow  the 
wasjiing  away  of  unprotected  soil  on  deforested  slopes  and 
destructive  freshets  which  cover  the  lowlands  with  deposits 
of  sand  and  mud.  To  prevent  this  waste  of  the  wealth  of  the 
nation,  Congress  has  established  the  National  Forests.  The 
spirit  which  controls  the  administration  of  these  National  For- 
ests may  be  set  forth  in  the  words  " careful  use."  Rangers 
patrol  the  forests  to  protect  them  from  misuse  and  destruc- 
tion. Live  stock  graze  on  the  forest,  but  the  number  is  lim- 
ited. Water  power  is  not  cut  off  from  use,  and  lumbering  is 
carried  on,  but  under  the  supervision  of  trained  foresters, 
who  see  that  all  trees  cut  are  closely  utilized,  that  provision 
is  made  for  leaving  seed  trees,  and  that  the  brush  is  properly 
burned  so  as  to  minimize  the  danger  from  fire. 

In  addition  to  these  methods  of  careful  usage,  the  national 
government  is  planting  large  areas  of  forest.  Altogether,  how- 
ever, in  this  country  we  have  planted  an  area  equal  only  to 
the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  whereas  the  area  planted  to  trees 
should  have  been  one  hundred  times  greater.  The  forest  is 
a  very  important  contributor  to  our  national  wealth,  and  one 


FARM  FORESTRY  247 

of  the  chief  reasons  why  our  nation  is  so  very  prosperous 
is  because  we  have  been  bountifully  supplied  by  nature  with 
timber.  Hence  it  is  the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  see  that  this 
great  national  heritage  is  not  wasted  or  wantonly  destroyed. 

The  forests  of  the  United  States.  About  one-fourth  of 
the  United  States  is  in  timberland.  There  are  two  great  and 
unlike  forest  regions;  namely,  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic 
regions.  All  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  was 
originally  a  vast  forest  of  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
million  acres,  of  which  about  40  per  cent  has  been  turned  into 
farm  lands.  The  area  to  the  west  is  almost  twice  as  large, 
and  into  it  stretch,  like  peninsulas,  the  forest  mountain  ranges 
of  the  Rockies  and  the  forests  of  the  Sierras  and  Coast  Ranges. 

The  Atlantic  forests  are  composed  of  a  large  variety  of 
broad-leaved  species,  with  conifers  intermixed,  gradually 
changing  to  the  westward  into  prairie  country.  To  the  west 
of  the  prairie  belt  lie  the  plains  and  semi-arid  regions,  where 
tree  growth  is  almost  absent.  Into  this  type  of  country  the 
Rocky  Mountain  forests  protrude.  These  forests  are  prin- 
cipally coniferous.  Parallel  to  the  coast  from  north  to  south 
extends  the  Pacific  forest,  along  the  mountain  slopes  of  the 
Cascades,  Sierra  Nevada,  and  Coast  Range.  These  forests 
have  trees  of  most  magnificent  development,  with  only  a  few 
broad-leaved  species.  Here  grow  the  famous  "big  trees," 
now  rapidly  vanishing  before  the  lumberman. 

From  this  vast  forest  domain  the  federal  government  has 
set  apart  nearly  two  hundred  million  acres  as  great  national 
reservations.  These  reserves  are  controlled  by  expert  for- 
esters whose  policy,  as  heretofore  explained,  is  that  of  care- 


248  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

ful  usage  of  all  the  forest  resources.  Most  of  these  reserves 
are  in  the  far  West,  but  since  the  federal  government  has 
appropriated  about  twelve  million  dollars  to  purchase  east- 
ern reserves,  we  now  have  some  national  forests  In  the  Appa- 
lachian region. 

THE  FARMER'S  WOOD  LOT 

The  fanner  and  forestry.  Even  though  the  national  gov- 
ernment does  own  nearly  two  hundred  million  acres  of  for- 
est, and  private  and  corporate  interests  own  many  millions 
more,  the  greatest  bulk  of  forests  is  owned  and  controlled  by 
the  farmers.  We  must  look  to  them  for  our  future  timber 
supply.  Are  they  using  and  conserving  wisely  this  great  nat- 
ural resource? 

It  is  more  practical  and  of  more  general  value  to  the  coun- 
try that  the  farmer  practice  the  principles  of  good  forestry 
on  his  wood  lot  than  that  the  government  own  large  reserva- 
tions. There  are  many  reasons  why  the  farmer  should  and 
could  be  governed  by  modern  forestry  principles  in  the  man- 
agement of  his  wood  lot.  The  land  is  his,  he  has  time  to  look 
after  his  forest,  to  study  its  needs  and  requirements,  he  needs 
the  timber  for  farm  operations,  he  can  protect  it  from  fire, 
preserve  the  young  trees,  and  plant  more  as  needed. 

If  all  of  the  eight  million  farmers  of  this  country  would 
plant  or  wisely  manage  wood  lots,  the  general  forest  condi- 
tions and  the  lumber  supply  of  the  country  would  be  greatly 
improved.  All  non-agricultural  lands,  such  as  steep  hillsides, 


FARM  FORESTRY  249 

roadsides,  and  stream  banks,  should  be  covered  with  growing 
trees,  for  these  places  could  not  be  used  more  profitably  in 
any  other  way. 

Planting  the  wood  lot.  The  seedlings  of  such  trees  as 
catalpa,  black  locust,  walnut,  ash,  and  poplar  may  be  pur- 
chased for  small  sums,  and  an  acre,  of  land  will  support  from 
500  to  1,000  of  these  trees.  The  trees  should  be  planted  on 
land  prepared  as  if  for  a  corn  crop,  and  set  from  six  to 
eight  feet  apart  each  way.  The  young  trees  should  be  culti- 
vated for  the  first  four  or  five  years,  or  until  the  crowns  touch 
and  the  canopy  entirely  shades  the  ground.  In  a  compara- 
tively short  time  the  young  forest  will  be  full  of  promise, 
even  within  the  lifetime  of  one  generation. 

If  the  farmer  already  has  a  wood  lot,  so  much  the  better. 
His  scientific  forestry  then  will  consist  in  cleaning  out  worth- 
less, dead,  misshapen,  or  crowded  trees,  and  giving  all  valu- 
able species  every  advantage  of  root  and  crown  space.  If 
fire  is  kept  out  and  the  grass  is  shaded  down,  the  forest  will 
naturally  regenerate  itself,  and  the  farmer  may  use  the  ma- 
ture trees  and  the-thinnings  from  his  wood  lot  without  impair- 
ing the  permanency  of  his  forest. 

The  wood  lot  a  source  of  supply.  A  good  timber  lot  is 
one  of  the  best  crops  a  farmer  can  raise,  anjl  will  yield  good 
interest  on  the  money  invested.  Such  supplies  as  farm 
building  frames,  shingles,  fence  posts,  telephone  poles,  fuel, 
taken  from  the  farmer's  wood  lot,  mean  a  considerable  sav- 
ing in  expenditures  when  these  necessities  would  otherwise 
have  to  be  purchased. 


250  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

NUT  CROPS 

The  nut  trees.  We  should  not  continue  our  study  of  the 
forest  without  noting  the  importance  of  the  nut  trees.  Nuts 
constitute  a  valuable  part  of  man's  food.  They  are  rich  and 
nutritious,  and  are  coming  more  and  more  to  occupy  an 
important  place  among  our  articles  of  diet.  Some  of  the 
leading  varieties  of  nut  trees  are  the  almond,  English  wal- 
nut, white  walnut  or  butternut,  hickory  nut,  pecan,  chin- 
quapin, black  walnut,  chestnut,  hazelnut,  cocoanut,  and  Bra- 
zil nut. 

The  hickory.  The  shell  bark  and  shag  bark  hickories 
furnish  our  best  nuts.  They  make  excellent  shade  trees  and 
bear  sweet  and  wholesome  nuts.  Every  country  boy  knows 
how  to  gather  hickory  nuts.  The  hickory  trees  are  propa- 
gated by  sprouts  and  seeds.  As  a  forest  tree  for  wood  sup- 
plies, the  demand  for  hickory  is  very  great,  and  the  supply 
is  fast  decreasing. 

The  pecan.  The  pecan  tree  grows  wild  in  many  parts 
of  our  country  and  is  being  cultivated  in  many  of  the  south- 
ern states.  The  Appomatox  and  Mantura  are  varieties  of 
pecans  being  adapted  successfully  for  cultivation  in  states 
as  far  north  as  .Ohio,  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana, 
and  Illinois.  Pecans  may  be  propagated  from  seeds,  but  bud- 
ding and  grafting  give  the  best  results.  Pecan  trees  begin 
to  bear  when  about  six  years  of  age.  The  planting  and  grow- 
ing of  pecan  groves  is  an  enterprise  worth  trying,  and  cer- 
tainly every  farm  should  have  a  few  trees  for  the  sake  of 
the  shade  and  nuts  they  will  afford. 


FARM  FORESTRY  251 

The  English  walnut.  This  is  a  large  tree  which  begins 
to  bear  profitably  when  it  is  about  six  years  old,  and  con- 
tinues for  nearly  thirty  years.  English  walnuts  are  grown 
in  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  also  in  California.  Successful 
attempts  to  grow  the  English  walnut  have  been  made  in  many 
of  the  southern  states.  A  few  trees  are  growing  thriftily  in 
West  Virginia  and  Ohio,  but,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  none 
have  yielded  profitable  crops. 

The  chestnut.  The  unusually  large  crop  which  the  chest- 
nut tree  produces  encourages  us  to  believe  that  this  tree  is 
a  profitable  one  to  grow  in  many  sections.  The  chestnut  bark 
disease,  now  spreading  throughout  the  eastern  states,  is  a  dis- 
couraging feature  in  chestnut  culture.  Many  foreign  varie- 
ties of  chestnuts  are  being  successfully  grafted  on  native 
stock  to  the  advantage  of  this  branch  of  nut  culture. 

The  black  walnut  and  butternut.  These  common  nuts  are 
still  great  favorites  among  the  farm  supplies  of  nut  foods. 
The  walnut  trees  are  rather  rapid  growers,  and  their  culture 
is  to  be  encouraged,  not  only  for  the  nuts  they  afford,  but 
for  the  valuable  timber  they  produce. 

The  nut  industry.  The  culture  of  nuts  has  become  so 
important  that  a  National  Nut  Growers'  Association  has  been 
organized  which  publishes  a  monthly  magazine,  "The  Nut 
Grower,"  and  holds  annual  meetings  to  discuss  the  work  of 
this  industry.  The  demand  for  nuts  in  the  markets  of  the 
world  is  growing  rapidly,  and  the  business  of  nut  growing 
has  become  very  profitable,  especially  in  the  South.  Nuts  are 
being  used  more  and  more  extensively  for  food,  particularly 
in  the  preparation  of  meat  substitute  dishes. 


252  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

TREES  IN  THE  LANDSCAPE 

Beauty  and  utility.  Goethe 's  remark,  that ' '  The  beautiful 
must  be  taken  care  of;  the  useful  will  take  care  of  itself." 
is  to  a  large  extent  true  to-day.  The  American  people  are 
slow  to  pay  the  price  for  beauty,  especially  in  landscape  art. 
"We  are  entering  upon  a  period,  however,  when  the  esthetic 
aspects  of  our  surroundings  are  beginning  to  occupy  our 
attention.  Forestry  is  not  an  esthetic  art,  but  an  industrial 
one,  the  object  of  which  is  similar  to  agriculture;  namely, 
the  management  of  the  soil  for  the  production  of  wood  crops. 
Yet  the  natural  beauty,  the  sylvan  charm,  and  the  woodsy 
flavor  of  a  forest  readily  suggest  the  esthetic  element  which 
stimulates  our  artistic  sense.  It  will  be  impossible  to  develop 
a  satisfactory  country  life  without  conserving  the  beauty  of 
the  landscape,  and  developing  the  people  to  the  point  of 
appreciating  it. 

The  forest  an  element  of  beauty  in  the  landscape.  Both 
the  artistically  kept  park  of  the  city  and  the  natural  neglected 
forest  of  the  open  country  contribute  the  largest  element  to 
the  picture  in  the  landscape.  The  forest  furnishes  the  back- 
ground against  which  the  farm  home  scenes  show  most  at- 
tractively. The  broken  sky-line  of  the  trees,  the  variation  in 
form  and  color  of  the  leaves,  the  massing  of  shrubs  at  the 
borders  of  the  forests,  the  seasonal  changes  of  the  foliage — 
all  are  details  which  the  landscape  gardener  seeks  to  imitate 
in  his  efforts  to  give  natural  beauty  to  a  bit  of  ground. 

The  call  of  the  forest.  People  are  naturally  drawn  to  the 
forests  for  rest,  recreation,  and  the  satisfaction  which  its 


FARM  FORESTRY  253 

shade  and  beauty  afford.  We  seem  to  feel  instinctively  that 
trees  must  surround  our  most  sacred  things.  We  plant  trees 
about  our  homes,  we  bring  the  Christmas  tree  into  our  Yule- 
tide  festivities;  it  was  an  ancient  custom  to  plant  a  tree  in 
honor  of  the  birth  of  a  child,  and  we  often  plant  trees  at  the 
graves  of  our  loved  ones.  As  long;,  as  human  life  responds 
to  the  beauty  of  trees,  our  landscape  art  will  be  conserved. 


NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  forest  trees  that  you  know  at  sight. 

2.  What  are  the  two  life  processes  going  on  in  the  living 
tree? 

3.  What  are  ideal  forest  conditions? 

4.  Name   five  values  which  forests   serve. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  conservation  of  the  forests? 

6.  What  are  some  agencies  responsible  for  the  conserva- 
tion of  our  forests?     Which  can  do  the  most? 

7.  Name  some  practical  work  the  farmer  can  do  in  pro- 
viding a  good  wood  lot  on  his  farm. 

8.  List  some  good  trees  for  farm  wood  lot  planting. 


PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Identifying1  trees.  Let  the  class  in  agriculture  take 
a  walk  with  the  teacher  among  the  trees.  Each  pupil  should 
have  notebook  and  pencil.  Let  the  teacher  point  out  the 
trees  and  give  each  tree  a  number.  Let  each  pupil  take  down 
the  number  and  opposite  the  number  write  down  the  kind 
of  tree  he  thinks  it  is.  After  naming  a  dozen  or  more  trees, 
return  to  the  house,  or  be  seated  anywhere,  and  check  up 


254 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


each  list  with  the  teacher's  correct  names.  This  exercise  may 
be  repeated  until  the  pupils  know  all  the  trees  in  the  vicinity. 
2.  Reports  on  individual  trees.  Assign  to  each  pupil  a 
single  species  of  tree  and  require  the  following  table  filled 
out,  from  observational  study: 


Name  of 
tree 

Size  and 
form 

Place  of 
growth 

Condition 
of  tree 

How  I  know 
the  tree 

3.  Determining   age   of   trees.      Cut    cross   sections    of 
branches  as  large  as  can  be  conveniently  obtained,  and  give 
each  pupil  a  section.    Count  the  rings  of  growth  in  the  cross 
sections  and  note  the  age  of  the  branches.     Make  drawings 
of  the  sections  showing  bark,  rings  of  growth,  and  pith  rays. 

4.  An  observational  study  of  forest  conditions.    Go  with 
the  class  in  agriculture  to  a  forest.     Let  the  pupils  scatter 
out  through  the  forest' until  no  two  are  within  fifty  steps  of 
each  other.     With  paper  and  pencil  let  each  pupil  make 
note  of  the  forest  where  he  is  standing,  as  follows: 

1.  Condition  of  crown,  whether  open  or  closed. 

2.  Tree-boles,  whether  clean,  straight,  etc. 

3.  Forest  floor,  whether  grassy  or  rich  in  leaf  mould. 

4.  Kind  of  trees. 


FARM  FORESTRY  255 

5.  A  forest  museum.     Let  the  teacher  and  pupils  start 
a  little  museum  containing  samples  of  forest  products,  col- 
lections of  woods,  tree  seeds,  and  other  materials  derived  from 
the   forest.      These   specimens   should  be   so   arranged   that 
they  may  be  handled  and  passed  about  from  pupil  to  pupil 
without  injury. 

6.  Determining  board  measure  in  a  tree.    Measure  the 
diameter  of  a  tree  of  merchantable  size,  about  breast  high 
on  the  trunk.    Determine  by  "guess  estimation"  the  number 
of  sixteen- foot  logs  which  could  be  taken  from  the  tree.   Sub- 
tract four  from  the  diameter  in  inches,  square  the  remainder, 
and  multiply  the  result  by  the  number  of  logs  in  the  tree. 
The  result  is  the  approximate  B.  M.   (board  measure)   feet 
according  to  standard  log  rules.    A  rough  estimate  of  lum- 
ber content  of  a  given  area  could  be  worked  out  by  this 
method. 

7.  Map  studies  of  forest  areas  of  the  United  States.    Con- 
sult the  maps  of  the  United  States  in  the  school  geographies. 
Note  the  areas  mentioned  above  of  the  great  forest  regions 
of  the  country.     Find   ansAvers   from  the  geographies  and 
from  other  sources  to  the  following  questions: 

1.  Where  are  the  great  lumbering  sections  of  the  United 
States? 

2.  What  are  the  principal  commercial  species  ? 

3.  In  what  counties  of  your  state  are  the  forested  areas? 

4.  What  influence  does  the  forest  have  upon  water  and 
soil  conditions? 

5.  Upon  what  kind  of  regions  should  forests  be  perma- 
nently maintained?    Why? 

6.  What  is  the  conservation  policy  as  applied  to  forests? 
Note. — Send  to  the  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for 

a  forest  map  of  the  United  States. 

8.  Reports  on  home  wood  lots.    The  pupils  should  make 
a  tabular  report  of  the  home  wood  lot,  as  follows: 


256 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


No.  of  Acres 


Species  of 
Tree 


Supplies   taken 
from  It 


General 
Condition 


9.  Planting  a  forest  nursery.  The  planting  and  care  of 
a  forest  nursery  by  pupils  of  the  public  schools  is  one  of  the 
most  practical  forms  of  garden  work,  because  trees  are  more 
permanent  and  require  less  attention  than  garden  vegetables. 
Spade  up  a  piece  of  ground  about  6  feet  by  12  feet  in  an 
unused  corner  of  the  school  yard.  Select  a  well  drained  site, 
not  too  sloping,  with  as  rich  a  loam  soil  as  possible.  Work 
into  the  soil  this  fall  a  liberal  amount  of  well  rotted  manure, 
and  leave  the  ground  without  further  preparation  until 
spring. 

In  the  spring,  as  soon  as  conditions  will  permit,  the  ground 
should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  a  seed-bed  prepared  for 
the  planting.  Lay  off  the  plot  in  rows  12  to  18  inches  apart. 
Such  tree  seeds  as  the  basswood,  catalpa,  poplar,  beech,  chest- 
nut, locust,  oak,  maple,  and  such  others  as  can  be  obtained, 
may  be  planted  in  the  rows  of  the  nursery  plot.  During  the 
fall  gather  and  store  the  seeds.  Acorns  and  nuts  are  best 
stored  by  being  buried  in  sand  in  a  box,  sunk  in  the  ground 
in  a  well  drained  place.  Other  tree  seeds  may  be  kept  in 


FARM  FORESTRY 


257 


good  condition  in  sacks  hung  in  cool,  dry  places  away  from 
rats  and  mice. 

10.  Setting  a  catalpa  grove.    Either  in  the  fall  or  spring 
plant  a  small  catalpa  grove  on  the  school  grounds  or  on  an 
adjacent  lot  which  some  patron  is  willing  to  loan  for  that 
purpose.    Plow  up  about  one- tenth  of  an  acre.    Lay  it  off  in 
rows  both  ways  6  feet  apart.     Air  the  crossing  of  the  rows 
plant  a  catalpa  seedling.     The  plot  will  contain  about  100 
little  trees.    Send  to  Little  Tree  Farms,  South  Framingham, 
Mass.,  or  to  Ohio  Valley  Nursery  Co.,  Lake,  Indiana,  for  the 
catalpa  seedlings.     They  will  cost  about  1  cent  a  tree.     Be 
sure  to  get  the  catalpa  speciosa,  or  the  hardy  catalpa,  for 
the  common  soft  catalpa  is  worthless  as  a  farm  tree. 

11.  Description  of  various  nuts.    Bring  to  class  all  the 
various  kinds  of  nuts  you  can  obtain  and  tabulate  the  de- 
scription of  each  as  indicated  below: 


Name  of  Nut 

Size 

Nature  of 
Hulls 

Kind  of 
Kernel 

Plant  bearing 
the  Nut 

12.  The  picture  in  the  landscape.  Step  to  the  door  or 
the  window  of  the  school  house  with  the  class,  and  look  out 
upon  some  forest.  Call  attention  to  the  broken  sky-line, 


258  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

where  the  tree  tops  vary  in  height.  Note  the  different  colors 
of  foliage  and  the  different  shapes  of  the  trees.  Observe 
how  the  trees  and  shrubs  are  massed,  and  how  the  shrubs 
fill  up  the  space  down  to  the  ground.  Frame  with  the  eye  a 
picture,  bordered  by  sky,  hill,  forest,  and  earth,  and  observe 
how  beautiful  it  is.  Let  the  pupils  now  be  seated  and  write 
a  description  of  the  picture  from  the  details  observed. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM 
THE  ORCHARD 

.  The  home  orchard.  Every  man  who  owns  a  home  in  the 
country  owes  it  to  his  family  to  have  an  orchard.  Fruit  is  a 
popular  and  healthful  food,  and  every  farm  should  provide 
it,  both  for  the  summer  table  and  the  winter  cellar. 

"The  farm  without  its  fruit  orchard  is  like  pancakes  with- 
out maple  syrup — possible,  but  not  enjoyable."  The  farm 
orchard  should  supply  the  family  and  friends  with  the  cheap- 
est and  most  enjoyable  fruit  the  year  through,  as  well  as 
with  many  dainty  dishes  the  housewife  knows  so  well  how 
to  prepare. 

The  farm  orchard,  besides  providing  wholesome  food  for 
the  family,  adds  to  the  landscape  beauty  of  the  home  grounds. 
The  blossoming  of  the  orchard  in  springtime,  the  rich  green 
foliage  of  the  summer,  the  ripened  fruit  of  autumn,  and  the 
snow-covered  branches  of  winter  give  to  the  old  farmstead 
a  perennial  beauty  which  every  country-bred  boy  and  girl 
will  learn  to  appreciate.  In  addition  to  furnishing  these 
delights,  the  home  orchard,  unless  the  markets  be  over-stocked, 
may  be  a  source  of  profit  as  well. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  these  lessons,  however,  to  advise 

259 


260  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

or  teach  commercial  fruit  growing.  We  are  justified  in  call- 
ing attention  to  the  farm  home  orchard  and  in  teaching  every 
boy  and  girl  in  the  schools  how  to  select,  set  out,  and  care 
for  an  orchard,  in  order  that  every  farm  home  may  have  its 
fruit  supply.  Unless  the  farm  has  a  fruit  orchard  and  a 
good  garden,  the  country  people  are  not  likely  to  be  well  fed. 
The  boys  and  girls  growing  up  on  a  farm  without  its  orchards 
and  gardens  are  likely  to  grow  discontented  with  the  dull 
monotony  of  the  food,  work,  and  scenery  of  the  old  home  and 
leave,  to  their  own  and  to  the  farm's  detriment. 

General  topics  concerning  the  farm  orchard.  In  order 
to  have  a  successful  home  orchard  the  farmer  must  know 
how  to  care  for  it.  He  should  know  how  to  select  the  best 
site  for  his  orchard,  the  trees  best  suited  to  his  locality,  how 
to  set  them  out  properly,  how  to  prune,  trim,  and  graft,  and 
how  to  protect  them  from  diseases  and  insect  enemies.  The 
fruit  orchard  will  not  "live  by  faith  alone."  Watchful,  in- 
telligent care  and  considerable  work  are  required  to  maintain 
a  farm  orchard  in  first-class  condition.  While  this  is  true, 
there  are  few  things  that  bring  better  returns  or  give  greater 
satisfaction  for  the  labor  bestowed. 

SELECTING  THE  TREES 

Varieties.  The  commercial  orchardists  seldom  plant  more 
than  four  or  five  varieties  best  adapted  to  their  location  and 
markets,  but  the  farmer  requires  many  varieties  to  supply 
the  demands  for  fruit  throughout  the  year.  Early  summer, 
late  summer,  early  fall  and  winter,  late  winter  and  early 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  261 

spring  fruit,  are  all  necessary  for  his  table.  There  are  hun- 
dreds of  varieties  from,  which  to  choose,  but  those  varieties 
adapted  to  soil  and  climatic  conditions  should  be  selected. 
The  trees  grown  successfuly  in  the  community  will  indicate 
to  the  buyer  what  varieties  are  suitable.  The  personal  tastes 
of  the  owner  and  his  family  wfll  also  guide  in  the  selection 
of  varieties. 

A  few  of  the  standard  varieties  of  fruit  for  the  family 
orchards  of  the  Middle  West  may  be  mentioned  as  follows : 

APPLES.    Summer  Varieties. — Red  Astrachan,   Yellow  Transparent, 

Early  Harvest,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Red  June. 
Fall  Varieties. — Wealthy,  Maiden's  Blush,  Fameuse,  Grimes,  Jona- 
than. 

Winter  Varieties. — Rome  Beauty,  Wine  Sap,  Salome,  York  Imper- 
ial, Willow,  Stayman,  etc. 

PEACHES.     Elberta,    Champion,    Crawfords   Early,    Crawfords    Late, 
Heath  Cling,  Carman. 

CHERRIES.     Early  Richmond,  Montmorency,  Dyehouse,  English  Mor- 
ello,  Tartarian. 

PEARS.     Kieffer,  Flemish  Beauty,  Bartlett,  Howell,  Lincoln. 

PLUMS.     Burbank,   Damson,   Desota,  Wild   Goose,  Abundance,   Sur- 
prise. 

GRAPES.    Moore's    Diamond,    Niagara     (white),    Concord,    Worden 
(black),  Woodruff,  Brighton  (red). 

Selecting  the  young  trees.  Much*  valuable  advice  is  given 
upon  buying  at  the  nursery  grounds,  from  nearby  nurseries, 
and  from  carefully  inspected  stpck,  but  the  practical  thing 
for  the  farmer  to  do  is  to  order  such  varieties  as  he  may 
decide  upon  from  a  thoroughly  reliable  and  reputable  nursery- 
man, and  the  chances  are  that  he  will  get  better  s.tock  than 
he  would  if  he  selected  the  trees,  himself.  The  good  nursery- 


262  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

man  will  know  that  the  young  trees  should  not  be  dug  until 
the  leaves  have  nearly  all  fallen,  for  this  means  that  the  buds 
are  well  ripened  and  that  the  wood  is  hard  and  mature. 

Age  of  trees.  Whether  it  is  better  to  buy  straight  whips 
one-year-old  or  more  expensive  two-year-old  apple  trees  on 
which  the  main  branches  are  already  started,  is  an  unsettled 
question.  Professor  Alderman,  Horticulturist  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  of  West  Virginia,  -writes  on  the  subject  as 
follows : 

"The  advantages  in  favor  of  the  smaller  trees  are:  first, 
cheapness ;  second,  small  root  systems  which  will  require  only 
a  small  hole  at  planting  time ;  third,  the  head  may  be  formed 
at  any  height  to  suit  the  grower's  fancy;  fourth,  the  root 
systems  receive  less  injury  in  digging  than  do  those  of  larger 
trees. 

"The  advantages  of  the  two-year-olds  are:  first,  trees  with 
well-formed  heads  may  be  selected,  thereby  insuring  uniform 
and  symmetrical  orchard  trees;  second,  they  will  probably 
reach  bearing  size  a  year  sooner  than  a  one-year-old  tree; 
third,  it  is  easier  to  detect  crown  gall  or  hairy  root  upon 
them  than  upon  yearlings. 

"Between  the  first-class  trees  of  both  ages  the  two-year-old 
are  the  more  desirable.  It  is,  however,  sometimes  difficult 
to  get  good  two-year-old  trees  because  the  nursery  block  has 
been  sorted  over  the  previous  year  and  the  best  trees  sold  as 
yearlings.  Between  a  first-class-  yearling  and  a  second  grade 
two-year-old,  the  younger  tree  would  undoubtedly  be  the 
better.  Never  buy  three  or  four-year-old  trees,  because  these 
are  the  culls  of  previous  years  which  were  so  weak  and  small 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  263 

that  they  had  to  be  grown  the  extra  season  or  two  in  order 
to  bring  them  to  a  marketable  size/' 

PLANTING  THE  TREES 

The  orchard  site.  Before  planting  the  fruit  trees,  it  is 
evident  that  an  orchard  site  musf  be  determined  upon.  The 
foremost  orchard  fruit  to  be  considered  is,  of  course,  the 
apple,  which,  in  common  with  such  other  fruit  as  the  farmer 
is  likely  to  produce,  requires  a  deep,  well  drained  soil. 
Neither  apples  nor  stone  fruit  will  thrive  in  damp  soil. 
Therefore  a  site  should  be  selected  for  the  orchard  that  is 
rich  in  plant-food,  with  good  natural  drainage,  and  as  con- 
veniently located  with  reference  to  the  dwelling  as  possible. 
A  gently  sloping  side  hill  is  preferable,  and,  if  it  is  a  little 
stony,  so  much  the  better.  It  may  not  be  tilled  so  easily, 
but  the  fruit  will  grow  better.  On  hillside  orchard  sites  there 
is  good  air  drainage;  that  is,  the  cooler  air  settles  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hill  and  the  warmer  air  rises  toward  the  top.  This 
often  prevents  frost  on  the  higher  slopes. 

Laying-  out  the  orchard.  The  ordinary  apple  tree  when 
full  grown  requires  35  to  40  feet  between  rows.  The  trees 
may  be  set  in  squares  or  in  triangles.  From  25  to  40  trees 
may  be  planted  to  the  acre,  depending  upon  the  distance 
apart  and  the  method  of  laying  out. 

Planting  the  trees.  Fruit  trees  may  be  planted  either  in 
October  or  April.  There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the 
proper  way  to  prune  and  set  the  young  tree.  Some  hold  that 
all  the  tops  and  roots  should  be  maintained  and  that  the  tree 
should  be  set  in  the  same  direction  it  formerly  occupied  with 


264  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

reference  to  the  points  of  the  compass.  Others  say  that  all 
the  branches  should  be  cut  off  clean  and  most  of  the  stalk 
also,  as  well  as  all  of  the  roots.  Common  sense  would  suggest 
a  middle  ground.  The  head  of  the  young  two-year-old  tree 
should  be  cut  .back  so  that  three  or  four  side  limbs  are  left 
^and  these  pruned  to  three  or  four  buds.  A  central  limb 
should  be  left  upon  which  to  form  a  new  set  of  scaffolding 
limbs  for  the  next  season.  These  side  branches  become  the 
scaffolds  upon  which  the  future  top  is  formed.  The  roots 
should  be  pruned  to  six  or  eight  inches,  and  all  broken  or 
injured  parts  removed. 

If  the  orchard  site  has  been  put  in  good  tilth  and  furrows 
opened  up  with  the  plow,  little  hand  digging  will  be  neces- 
sary. If  the  soil,  especially  the  subsoil,  is  hard  and  compact, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  loosen  it  up  by  digging  a  hole  somewhat 
larger  than  is  necessary  to  hold  the  roots  of  the  tree.  If  the 
ground  for  the  orchard  has  not  or  can  not  be  plowed,  holes 
from  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter  and  from  one  to  two 
feet  deep  should  be  dug  where  the  young  trees  are  to  be  set. 
The  holes  should  then  be  filled  with  good  soil,  and  the  young 
trees  planted  slightly  deeper  than  they  were  growing  in  the 
nursery  row.  One  of  the  main  principles  to  observe  especially 
in  planting  the  tree  is  to  have  the  earth  well  firmed  about  all 
the  roots,  leaving  no  air  spaces.  The  ground  about  the  trees 
should  be  mulched  with  soil  and  well  rotted  manure  for 
winter  protection,  and  the  trunks  of  the  little  trees  covered 
with  common  window  screening  or  some  other  shield  to  pro- 
tect them  from  mice  and  rabbits.  No  grass  should  be  allowed 
to  grow  about  the  young  fruit  trees. 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  265 

CARE  OF  THE  YOUNG  TREES 

Pruning  the  young1  trees.  In  the  paragraph  on  planting 
trees  in  the  preceding  lesson,  the  proper  method  of  pruning 
the  young  apple  tree  was  suggested.  This  pruning  should  be 
done  in  the  spring  before  the  Cleaves  start  their  growth, 
whether  the  young  trees  were  set  in  the  fall  or  spring.  The 
purpose  of  the  first  pruning  is  to  restore  the  balance  between 
root  and  top,  to  establish  the  growth  near  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  or  stronger  supporting  scaffolds,  and  to  form  the  proper 
height  of  the  head.  Formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  start 
the  first  limbs  of  the  tree  four  or  five  feet  from  the  ground. 
Today  good  orchardists  of  the  East  and  Middle  West  head 
their  trees  from  one  to  two  feet  from  the  ground.  The  ad- 
vantages of  low  heading  are  as  follows:  (1)  Being  close  to 
the  ground  the  trees  do  not  suffer  as  much  from  the  action 
of  the  wind.  (2)  The  low  branches  help  to  prevent  sun-scald 
by  shading  the  trunk.  (3)  The  branches  shade  the  ground 
about  the  tree  and  retard  the  escape  of  moisture.  (4)  Prun- 
ing, spraying,  thinning,  picking,  etc.,  are  carried  on  more 
easily.  (5)  There  is  less  loss  of  fruit  from  windfalls. 

Subsequent  pruning-  in  building  the  tree.  The  next  sea- 
son after  setting  and  pruning  a  two-year-old  tree,  two  or 
more  branches  will  have  grown  from  each  scaffold  branch 
left.  Growth  starting  toward  the  center  of  the  tree  should 
be  pinched  off,  and  two  or  three  of  the  year's  branches  should 
be  cut  back  from  one-third  to  one-half  and  left  to  form  the 
supports  for  next  season's  growth.  The  central  leader  and 
its  branches  should  be  pruned  as  was  suggested  for  the  two- 


266  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

year-old  tree  first  set  out.  Continue  this  system  of  building 
scaffold  upon  scaffold  of  limbs  around  a  central  leader  until 
three  or  four  sets  of  limbs  are  formed,  then  the  subsequent 
pruning  should  consist  in  removing  superfluous  branches, 
those  which  tend  to  grow  crosswise,  and  in  heading  back 
branches  which  are  making  too  great  a  growth.  Much  of  the 
necessary  training  of  a  tree  can  be  done  during  the  early 
summer  by  pinching  off  the  growths  which  later  would  neces- 
sitate heavier  pruning.  A  moderate  pruning  each  season  is 
better  than  no  pruning  for  two  or  three  years  followed  by  a 
heavy  one  which  disturbs  the  equilibrium  and  starts  a  growth 
of  water  sprouts. 

Winter  protection  of  young1  trees.  Sudden  and  extreme 
changes  in  temperature .  occurring  during  the  winter  often 
cause  an  injury  to  the  bark  of  young  trees  known  as  sun- 
scald.  The  wind  often  blows  the  trees  about  to  such  an 
extent  that  a  hole  is  formed  in  the  ground  about  the  base  of 
the  tree,  in  which  water  may  stand  and  freeze  with  dis- 
astrous results  in  some  cases. 

Mice,  rabbits,  and  wood  chucks  cause  annual  and  serious 
depredations  to  thousands  of  young  fruit  trees  over  the 
country. 

In  order  to  prevent  losses  from  such  causes  as  are  men- 
tioned above,  the  young  trees  for  several  years  after  planting 
should  be  projected  by  mounding  and  wrapping  in  the  fall. 
Details  of  this  work  can  not  be  given  here,  but  good  judg- 
ment and  constant  vigilance  will  guide  the  orchardist  in  his 
efforts  to  save  j^oung  trees. 

Cultivating  the  young  orchard.     The  following  systems 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  267 

of  orchard  cultivation  are  used  by  fruit  growers:  sod  culture, 
sod  mulch,  the  mulch  system,  partial  cultivation,  and  clean 
cultivation  with  cover  crops.  Sod  culture  is  least  desirable  of 
all  for  young  orchards,  for  trees  do  not  make  proper  growth 
and  are  much  more  likely  to  suffer  from  rodent  and  borer 
injuries.  Sod  mulch  consists  in  cufting  the  grass  and  leaving 
it  under  the  trees.  It  is  a  little  better  than  the  first  unless 
a  good  growth  of  grass  is  provided.  The  mulch  system  con- 
sists in  piling  about  the  trees  any  organic  matter,  such  as 
manure,  straw,  weeds,  etc.,  which  will  rot  down.  If  a  con- 
siderable amount  is  used,  and  it  is  not  piled  close  up  to  the 
trunk,  this  system  is  very  good.  In  partial  cultivation  the 
trees  are  set  in  plowed  strips  and  the  balance  of  the  space 
left  in  sod.  Clean  cultivation  with  cover  crops  is  without 
doubt  the  best  one  for  the  orchardist  to  follow.  By  this  sys- 
tem the  young  orchard  is  plowed  or  harrowed,  and  a  soil 
mulch  maintained  by  harrowing  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or 
two  weeks  until  the  cover  crop  is  sown.  Cultivation  should 
usually  cease  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  a  cover  crop 
of  cow-peas,  soy  beans,  clovers,  or  even  rye  may  be  sown. 

Young  trees  make  their  wood  growth  during  the  period  of 
cultivation,  and  the  cover  crop  coming  on  later  hastens  the 
maturity  of  the  wood  and  mulches  the  ground  as  a  winter 
protection.  When  this  is  plowed  under  the  next  spring,  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  improved  and  elements  of 
fertility  added  and  made  available  for  the  young  fruit  trees. 
It  should  be  understood  that  the  main  purposes  in  cultivation 
are  to  keep  the  soil  loose,  to  conserve  moisture  near  the  sur- 
face, and  to  facilitate  fertilization. 


268 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

RENOVATION  OF  OLD  ORCHARDS 


Pruning  old  trees.  It  is  interesting  and  proper  to  buy 
and  set  out  young  fruit  trees  and  to  care  for  them  properly, 
but  it  is  well  to  look  to  the  old  apple  trees  and  peach  trees 
on  the  farm.  These  old  trees  perhaps  have  done  good  service 
to  our  fathers  and  mothers,  and  are  now  being  shamefully 


FIG.   35.     A  WELL  TRIMMED  APPLE   TREE 

neglected,  though  they  still  try  to  renew  their  life  with 
each  coming  season.  Let  us  turn  to  these  old  trees  with  the 
same  skill  and  labor  which  we  are  willing  to  bestow  upon 
young  trees,  and  they  will  repay  us  by  abundant  yields  before 
our  young  trees  have  blossomed. 

The  first  step  in  the  rejuvenation  of  an  old  orchard  is  to 
cut  down  the  tops  of  the  old  trees  from  one-third  to  one- 
half.  The  guiding  principle  in  this  rather  severe  operation 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM 


269 


is  to  cut  always  just  above  a  live  limb,  leaving  no  stub  to 
die,  and  to  paint  over  the  cut  surface  with  white  lead,  creosote, 
or  any  paint  solution,  to  prevent  decay.  The  dead  and  dying 
branches  should  be  removed  and  all  such  branches  should 
be  cut  close  to  the  main  stem  from  which  they  arise.  All 
branches  running  crosswise  or  toward  the  center  of  the  tree 
should  be  removed.  The  rough  bark  should  be  scraped  off 
the  trunks,  and  the  old  fashioned  practice  of  white-washing 
or  soap-suds-washing  the  trunk  is  not  a  bad  one. 


PIG.  36.      SPRAYING  LARGE   TREES. 

After  such  a  severe  pruning  as  recommended  above,  the 
new  life  of  the  tree  will  manifest  itself  in  a  vigorous  growth 
of  water  sprouts  in  various  places  over  the  tree.  Most  of 
these  water  sprouts  should  be  cut  away  the  next  season, 
except  a  few  which  should  be  left  and  pruned  back  to  form 


270  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

new  branches.  This  method  is  especially  successful  with  old 
peach  trees. 

Spraying  the  orchard.  Perhaps  the  next  step  in  the  re- 
juvenation of  the  old  orchard  is  to  spray.  Before  the  leaf 
and  fruit  buds  open  in  the  spring,  the  trees  should  be  sprayed 
with  a  commercial  lime-sulphur  solution,  diluted  one  gallon 
to  nine  or  ten  of  water.  This  spray  is  effective  against  San 
Jose  scale,  apple  scab,  and  several  other  fungous  diseases 
living  over  the  winter  on  the  limbs  and  twigs  of  the  trees. 
As  soon  as  the  apple  blossoms  fall,  the  next  spraying  should 
be  given.  This  consists  of  a  fungicide  and  insecticide  com- 
bined, commercial  lime-sulphur,  one  and  one-half  gallons  di- 
luted to  50  gallons  with  water,  to  which  is  added  two  pounds 
of  lead  arsenate  in  solution.  This  spray  is  used  to  combat 
fruit  scab,  blotch,  leaf  rusts  and  other  diseases,  as  well  as  the 
codling  moth  and  other  chewing  insects  such  as  the  canker 
worm,  tent  caterpillar,  curculios,  etc.  The  lead  arsenate  is 
the  insecticide,  and  the  lime-sulphur  the  fungicide.  If  this 
spraying  is  done  thoroughly,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  spray 
again  that  season  in  order  to  secure  a  good  crop  of  fruit. 
It  is  often  advisable,  however,  to  repeat  the  second  spraying 
in  three  or  four  weeks,  and  again  about  the  last  of  July  to 
combat  the  second  brood  of  codling  moth.  An  ordinary  fifty- 
gallon  barrel  spray  pump  for  the  farm  home  orchard  will 
do  the  work  well. 

Cultivating  and  fertilizing  the  orchard.  If  the  soil  in  the 
old  orchard  is  poor  and  has  not  been  cultivated  for  many 
years,  a  top-dressing  of  stable  manure  and  lime  worked  into 
the  soil  will  help  to  renew  it.  Many  old  orchards  have  been 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM 


271 


successfully  rejuvenated  by  dynamiting  the  ground  about 
the  old  trees.  If  it  is  not  practical  to  do  this,  the  next  best 
method  is  to  use  the  mulch  system :  cut  all  grass,  hay,  weeds, 
etc.,  and  pile  with  strawy  manure  under  the  limbs  of  the 
trees.  This  will  help  to  retain  the  moisture  and,  by  its  .decay, 
fertilize  the  soil. 

Top-working  the  old  orchard.  Often  the  old  apple  trees 
are  not  of  a  very  good  variety,  or  there  aie  not  enough 
varieties  to  serve  the  best  home  uses.  It  is  then  possible  to 
graft  upon  the  tops  of  these  old  trees  scions  from  the  desired 


FIG.   37.     A.   WAXING  THE  STUB 

varieties.  The  stock  upon  which  the  graft  is  to  be  made  may 
be  from  one-half  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  This 
stock  should  be  cut  clean  and  squarely  across  and  a  cleft 
made  down  the  stub  to  hold  the  scions.  Scions  from  one- 
year-old  branches  on  bearing  trees  of  the  desired  variety 


272 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


should  be  cut  for  graft.  Two  scions,  each  containing  three 
buds,  should  be  placed  with  the  cambium  layers  in  contact 
in  the  cleft  of  the  stock,  and  the  whole  exposed  cut  surface 
then  covered  with  grafting  wax. 


FIG.   37.      B.   TIPPING  THE  GRAFT  WITH  WAX 

If  both  grafts  grow,  one  may  be  removed  to  allow  room 
for  the  other. 

TYPES  OF  FRUIT 

Tree  fruits.  The  common  farm  orchard  tree  fruits  belong 
to  two  classes :  the  pomaceous  fruits,  including  the  apple, 
pear,  quince,  etc.,  and  the  drupaceous  or  stone  fruits,  includ- 
ing the  peach,  plum,  cherry,  etc.  The  pome  fruits  contain 
several  seeds  encased  in  parchment-like  cells  in  a  central  core. 
The  drupe  fruits  contain  a  single  seed  in  a  single  stony  pit, 
all  within  the  edible  pulp  of  the  fruit.  The  leafy  parts  of 
the  flower  of  the  pome  types  are  borne  upon  the  fruit.  In 
the  drupe  types  they  are  borne  on  the  flower  stem  below  the 
fruit.  Horticulturists  note  other  differences  between  these 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  273 

two  types,  but  these  are  sufficient  for  our  purposes  in  school. 

The  apple.     The  apple  is  the  most  important  American 

fruit.     It  may  be  obtained  fresh  and  ripe  throughout  the 

whole  year.     The  apple  tree  is  one  of  the  longest  lived  and 


FIG.   37.      C.   THE  OPERATION  WAS  SUCCESSFUL 

largest  of  our  fruit  trees.  It  will  begin  bearing  about  the 
fifth  year  of  its  age,  and  if  properly  cared  for  will  bear  for 
nearly  a  century.  It  is  grown  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
United  States.  Great  improvement  has  been  made  in  develop- 
ing new  and  excellent  varieties  of  apples  since  the  day  when 
all  apples  were  small,  worthless  sour  crabs. 

The  peach.    The  peach  is  one  of  our  most  delicious  fruits. 


274  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

The  peach  tree  begins  to  bear  when  three  or  four  years  of 
age,  and  will  bear  for  many  years  if  properly  cared  for. 
The  peach  is  not  so  hardy  as  the  apple  and  succeeds  well  only 
in  certain  localities.  Wherever  the  winter  is  not  too  cold 
for  the  trees,  however,  every  farmer  should  grow  peach  trees 
enough  to  provide  fruit  for  the  family.  The  fruit  of  the  peach 
is  grown  upon  the  shoots  that  grew  the  season  before,  while 
that  of  the  apple  is  grown  on  spurs  two  or  more  years  old. 

COMMON  ORCHARD  PESTS 

Insect  pests.  Orchard  trees  need  constant  protection 
against  harmful  insects  and  fungous  diseases.  Special  knowl- 
edge of  each  insect  and  of  each  kind  of  fruit  is  needed  to 
combat  successfully  these  pests.  The  best  protection  against 
orchard  pests  is  given  by  spraying  the  trees  with  water  con- 
taining some  substance  that  destroys  the  pest  without  injur- 
ing the  trees.  The  subject  of  spraying  was  discussed  briefly 
in  a  former  paragraph. 

Insects  injure  fruit  trees  in  three  ways:  by  eating  the 
foliage,  by  sucking  the  juice  from  the  tree,  and  by  boring 
into  the  fruit  or  body  of  the  tree.  The  loss  of  our  fruit  each 
year,  due  to  insects  and  diseases,  runs  far  into  millions  of 
dollars. 

Codling1  moth.  The  great  arch  enemy  of  the  apple  is  the 
codling  moth.  The  caterpillar  form  of  this  moth  lives  in  the 
apple  and  is  commonly  known  as  the  apple  worm.  The  moth 
lays  its  eggs  on  the  foliage  in  the  spring  a  week  or  two  after 
the  blossoms  fall,  and  the  eggs  hatch  into  the  apple  worms, 
which  usually  enter  the  fruit  at  the  blossom  end.  The  cod- 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  275 

ling  moth  has  two  generations  in  a  season,  and  when  the 
worm  or  larva  of  the  second  generation  leaves  the  apple,  it 
hides  for  the  winter  in  a  silken  cocoon,  usually  under  the 
scale  of  the  bark  of  the  apple  tree.  The  moth  emerges  from 
this  cocoon  the  next  spring  soon  after  the  blossoms  drop.  If 
you  should  look  behind  the  loose-bark  of  the  apple  tree  now, 
you  would  probably  find  the  silken  cocoons  of  the  apple  worm. 
Woodpeckers  and  nuthatches  find  these  cocoons  and  destroy 
them  in  great  numbers.  These  birds  should  never  be  killed, 
as  they  are  doing  a  good  work  in  destroying  the  worms  that 
would  otherwise  spoil  many  apples. 

Curculio.  Apples,  plums,  and  cherries  are  often  injured 
by  an  insect  called  the  curculio.  This  insect  punctures  the 
skin  of  the  fruit  and  lays  its  eggs  in  it.  The  eggs  hatch 
into  grubs  that  live  until  they  are  full  grown.  This  causes 
the  fruit  to  be  "  wormy "  and  to  drop  before  ripening. 

San  Jose  scale.  The  common  enemy  of  all  fruit  trees  is 
the  San  Jose  scale.  About  all  the  structure  the  insect  has 
is  a  long  beak  and  a  big  stomach.  It  is  entirely  covered  with 
a  waxy  scale,  giving  the  branch  upon  which  great  numbers 
collect  an  ashy  color.  The  scale  insects  suck  the  sap  from 
the  living  bark  and  cause  the  tree  to  die.  There  are  four 
or  five  broods  in  a  season,  and  the  young  scales  live  dormant 
through  the  winter.  The  oyster-shell  scale  is  common  on  the 
apple  and  peach  tree,  but,  having  only  one  generation  in 
a  season,  the  injury  done  by  it  is  not  so  serious. 

Yellows.  The  peach  is  subject  to  a  disease  called  "yel- 
lows." This  disease  has  entirely  destroyed  whole  orchards 
of  trees.  No  remedy  is  known  for  it  but  to  dig  out  and  burn 


276  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  affected  trees.  The  flesh  of  peaches  having  this  disease  is 
usually  marked  lay  red  lines  or  splashes  beneath  reddish 
spots  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit.  Fruits  showing  these  char- 
acteristics usually  ripen  prematurely.  A  second  symptom, 
or  the  first  in  trees  not  bearing  fruit,  is  the  short  tip  growth 
of  narrow,  stiff,  yellowish  leaves  nearly  at  right  angles  to 
the  stem.  In  the  final  stage  of  the  disease  there  is  a  small 
slender  growth  of  all  new  wood,  and  a  profusion  of  branchy 
growths  in  the  center  of  the  tree. 

Fungous  diseases.  Evidences  of  fungous  diseases  may  be 
seen  in  every  orchard.  There  is  the  brown  rot  of  the  peach, 
and  the  bitter  rot  of  the  apple;  the  apple  scab  and  blotch, 
dark  brown  or  black  splotches  on  the  fruit;  rusts,  yellowish 
spots  on  the  leaves;  blight  of  the  foliage  of  the  apple  and 
pear,  in  which  the  foliage  appears  burned;  the  black  knot  of 
the  plum,  hard,  woody  black  knots  on  the  twigs ;  the  mildew 
of  the  grape,  a  powdery  mould  on  the  leaves ;  and  the  cankers 
of  the  branches,  dead,  sunken  spots  on  the  bark  and  sap- 
wood  of  the  trunk  or  branches.  The  practical  way  to  com- 
bat these  diseases  in  the  fall  of  the  year  is  to  cut  away  and 
destroy  all  diseased  parts  and  mummied  fruit,  for  through 
them  the  spores  will  spread  to  infect  the  next  season's  fruit. 
Bordeaux  Mixture  and  lime-sulphur  are  the  sprays  for  such 


PACKING  AND  STORING  FRUIT 

In  the  business  of  fruit  growing  the  orchardist  is  con- 
cerned with  the  picking,  packing,  storing,  and  marketing  of 
the  fruit,  but  the  boys  and  girls  who  study  these  lessons  will 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  277 

be  interested  only  in  the  operations  of  picking  and  storing 
the  fruits  on  the  farm. 

Picking  fruit.  It  is  too  often  the  practice  on  the  farm 
to  pick  the  apples  from  the  ground  after  tney  have  been 
knocked  or  shaken  from  the  tree.  No  wonder  the  fruit  gath- 
ered and  stored  by  such  methods  fails  to  keep  for  any  length 
of  time.  Where  the  fruit  is  bruised  or  the  skin  broken,  the 
spores  of  the  rot  are  sure  to  enter  and  cause  the  fruit  to 
decay.  All  fruit  to  be  stored  or  marketed  should  be  hand- 
picked  and  carefully  handled  to  prevent  bruises  and  the 
consequent  early  decay.  In  the  case  of  apples,  it  is  gener- 
ally best  to  pick  them  just  as  they  have  reached  their  full  size 
and  when  they  have  attained  their  full  color.  The  best  time 
to  pick  a  pear  is  just  as  soon  as  it  reaches  its  full  size  and 
before  it  has  begun  to  color.  The  pear  may  be  taken  in  one 
hand  and  turned  up,  and  if  the  stem  snaps  off  from  the 
spur  the  fruit  is  ripe  enough  to  pick.  A  peach  is  ripe  enough 
to  pick  when  it  is  full  grown  and  has  reached  its  characteristic 
color.  In  the  case  of  cherries  and  plums,  the  fruit  should 
be  picked  just  before  it  has  reached  the  best  edible  condition. 

How  to  pick  the  tree  fruits.  In  picking  the  tree  fruits 
it  is  best  to  use  a  basket  fastened  to  the  body  of  the  picker 
in  some  way  so  that  he  may  have  the  free  use  of  both  hands. 
The  basket  may  be  hung  upon  the  ladder  or  the  limbs  by  a 
*vire  hook,  if  the  fruit  does  not  have  to  be  dropped  too  far 
to  rgach  it.  If  the  baskets  are  lined  on  the  inside  with  thick 
cloth  or  burlap,  they  will  be  better  for  the  purpose  and 
save  many  bruises  to  the  fruit.  In  picking  apples  it  is  nearly 
always  essential  to  have  long  and  light  ladders  with  peaked 


278  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

tops,  which  can  be  run  up  into  the  tops  of  the  trees  and 
rest  against  the  branches.  In  orchards  where  trees  are  prop- 
erly pruned  a  step-ladder  is  often  all  that  will  be  required. 

Handling  the  fruit.  After  fruit  is  picked  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  it  should  be  kept  cool  and  away  from  direct 
sun.  Apples  ripen  very  rapidly  in  the  pile  if  they  are 
exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  when  apples  are  taken  directly  from  the  trees  to  a 
cool  room  and  then  kept  in  storage,  where  the  ripening  proc- 
ess is  checked.  When  tree  fruits  are  to  be  sold  on  the  mar- 
kets, they  are  usually  sorted  into  three  classes :  first  grade, 
second  grade,  and  culls.  First-grade  apples  are  carefully 
placed  in  bushel  boxes  or  in  barrels,  according  to  some  system 
of  packing,  such  as  is  here  shown  in  the  illustration,  and  sold 
on  the  markets  of  the  world.  In  this  lesson,  however,  we  are 
concerned  only  with  the  storing  of  fruit  in  the  home  cellar, 
and  not  with  commercial  packing  and  storing. 

Home  storage  of  fruit.  The  home  storage  is  generally  a 
cellar,  a  half -cellar,  or  a  building  entirely  above  ground.  An 
ordinary  house  cellar,  if  it  has  good  ventilation  and  is  not 
too  dry,  or  too  wet,  or  too  warm,  answers  very  well  for  the 
storage  of  fruit.  It  is  best,  however,  both  for  the  purpose 
of  storage  and  for  health,  that  the  fruit  cellar  should  be 
separate  from  the  dwelling  house. 

The  requisites  of  a  good  storage  cellar  are:  protection 
from  frost,  uniform  temperature  at  about  40  degrees,  facili- 
ties for  ventilation,  and  air  moist  enough  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion. In  cellars  which  are  too  dry  the  fruit  should  be  left 
in  closed  packages,  but  if  the  air  is  moist  and  the  temperature 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM     -  279 

low,  the  fruit  may  be  packed  in  shallow  racks  or  trays.  It 
is  well  to  go  through  the  fruit  package  several  times  and  sort 
out  the  over-ripe  or  decayed  specimens,  or  they  will  rot  and 
spread  contamination  to  the  rest  of  the  package.  The  fruit 
stored  in  the  home  cellar  will  keep  much  longer  and  in  better 
condition  if  each  apple  is  wrappeS  in  paper  of  some  kind. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  three  reasons  why  a  farmer  should  have  an  orchard 
and  take  good  care  of  it. 

2.  List  three  good  varieties  each  of  apples  ripening  in 
early  summer,  early  autumn,  and  for  winter  storage. 

3.  What  conditions  in  young  nursery  stock  should  be  in- 
spected carefully  before  the  trees  are  planted? 

4.  What  are  factors  determining  the  location  of  the  or- 
chard ? 

5.  How  should  the  ground  be  prepared  for  the  trees? 

6.  What  conditions  should  receive  special  care  in  planting 
young  trees? 

7.  Name  thre'e  purposes  in  pruning  young  trees. 

8.  Why  should  a  young  orchard  be  cultivated? 

9.  How  may  an  old  orchard  be  revived  and  made  profit- 
able? 

10.  What  are  the  sprays  used  and  when  applied  for  San 
Jose  scale,  codling  moth,  fruit  scab,  and  rot? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

Report  on  the  home  orchard.  Let  each  pupil  make  a  re- 
port on  the  home  orchard  according  to  the  following  out- 
line, and  tabulate  his  observations. 


280 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Name 
of  Variety 

No. 
of  Trees 

Age 
of  Trees 

Amount 
of  Fruit 
Yielded 

General 
Condition 
of  Trees 

- 

Examining  nursery  stock.  In  time  before  this  exercise 
the  teacher  should  send  to  some  nursery  for  a  dozen  or  more 
yearling  and  two-year-old  apple  trees.  These  may  possibly 
be  obtained  free  for  school  purposes,  or  at  a  special  price. 
Pupils  should  make  note  of  at  least  six  little  trees  as  follows : 


Length 

Age 

Root 

System 

Condition 
of  Graft  or  Bud 

Thriftiness 

Save  the  trees  to  plant  for  later  studies. 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  281 

Laying1  out  a  young  orchard.  Procure  two  lengths  of  com- 
mon fencing  wire,  each  35  feet  long.  Fasten  rings  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter  at  the  ends  of  each  wire. 

Go  to  the  school  yard  or  adjacent  field  and  lay  out  a  small 
orchard  plot,  as  follows: 

Let  two  boys,  one  at  each  enc^  of  a  wire,  lay  off  a  base 
line,  six  or  seven  lengths  of  the  wire,  driving  stakes  at  each 
35-foot  point.  Now  let  one  boy  hold  one  end  of  the  wire 
over  the  first  stake,  a  second  boy  hold  one  end  of  the  second 
wire  over  the  second  stake,  and  a  third  boy  hold  the  other 
ends  of  both  wires,  and  where  the  ends  of  the  wires  meet  a 
stake  should  be  driven  to  locate  the  first  tree  in  the  second  row 
to  be  planted.  The  boys  should  move  down  the  base  line, 
locating  the  trees  in  this  triangular  system  in  the  second  row, 
which  becomes  the  base  line  for  the  third  row,  and  so  on 
until  the  orchard  is  laid  out  thus: 

000000 
0  0  0  O  O 

•  o  o  o  o  o  o 

Planting  the  trees.  If  the  nursery  stock  has  been  pro- 
vided, as  suggested  in  the  last  lesson,  the  young  trees  should 
be  planted  by  the  class  in  one  part  of  the  school  yard  not  used 
for  a  playground.  Observe  all  the  principles  discussed  above 
in  planting  these  trees.  If  the  school  grounds  are  not  large 
enough  for  this  purpose,  arrangements  may  be  made  to  have 
the  pupils  assist  in  planting  some  trees  on  a  nearby  farm. 

Pruning  young  trees.  With  specimens  of  young  apple 
trees  two  or  three  years  of  age,  either  in  the  field  or  in  the 
laboratory,  practice  pruning  according  to  the  principles  dis- 
cussed in  the  foregoing  paragraphs. 

Protecting  young  trees.  Go  with  the  class  to  a  young 
orchard  and  let  members  of  the  class  wrap  the  young  tree- 


282  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

trunks  to  protect  them  from  winter  injuries.  Use  cornstalks, 
building  paper,  wood  veneering,  window  screening,  or  any 
convenient  wrapping  material. 

Pruning  an  old  apple  tree.  Go  with  the  class  to  an  old 
orchard  where  the  trees  have  been  neglected  and  have  grown 
tall  and  unshapely.  Let  one  or  two  boys  with  pruning  saws 
go  into  the  top  of  the  tree  and  cut  the  limbs  according  to 
the  teacher's  directions.  Follow  the  principles  discussed  in 
preceding  paragraphs,  and  prune  one  tree  as  a  demonstra- 
tion. 

Spraying  demonstration.  If  the  school  does  not  have  a 
spray  pump,  perhaps  it  could  be  arranged  in  the  community 
for  a  demonstration  to  be  given  for  the  benefit  of  the  class 
at  some  home  orchard.  Mix  and  apply  the  spray  in  the 
presence  of  the  class  as  described  on  page  270. 

Exercises  in  grafting.  The  pupils  studying  this  lesson 
should  either  go  to  some  tree  and  practice  top-grafting,  as 
suggested  in  the  paragraph  on  grafting,  or  bring  twigs  of 
apple  trees  into  the  schoolroom  and  make  the  grafts.  See 
various  texts  for  full  explanation  of  the  cleft  graft  and"  of 
making  grafting  wax. 

Observational  studies  of  fruits.  Let  each  pupil  have  an 
apple  and  note  the  following  points.  Write  out  the  descrip- 
tion. 

1.  The  blossom  end  and  the  stem  end. 

2.  The  depression  at  the  blossom  end  is  called  the  basin. 

3.  Color  and  markings. 

4.  Shape  and  size. 

5.  Nature  of  blemishes,  if  any. 

6.  Cut  through  the  center  of  the  apple  across  the  core. 
How  many  seed  cells  are  there?     How  are  they  arranged? 
How  many  seeds  in  each  cell?     Observe  the  parchment-like 
walls  of  the  cell. 

7.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  cross  section  of  the  apple. 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM 


283 


8.     Make  a  drawing  of  a  vertical  section  of  the  apple. 

A  good  method  of  sketching  the  outline  of  the  apple  sec- 
tions is  to  mark  with  an  indelible  pencil  on  the  edge  of  the 
cut  surface  of  the  apple,  and  then  press  the  cut  surface  down, 
on  the  paper.  The  outline  of  the  apple  will  be  clearly  defined. 

Let  each  pupil  examine  a  peach  and  compare  its  structure 
with  that  of  the  apple,  noting  the  above  points.  Crack  the 
stone  of  a  peach  and  observe  the  kernel  within.  If  practical, 
make  similar  studies  of  the  plum,  cherry,  pear,  and  quince. 

Judging  apples.  If  you  have  ever  visited  a  county  or 
state  fair,  you  will  remember  seeing  the  display  of  plates 
of  fine  apples,  bearing  the  blue  or  red  ribbons  to  indicate 
first  and  second  prizes.  In  a  plate  of  first-class  show  apples 
all  the  fruit  should  be  uniform  in  size,  shape,  color,  and 
absolutely  free  from  any  kind  of  blemish.  Unless  fruit  has 
been  thinned,  sprayed,  properly  picked  and  handled,  it  is  not 
likely  that  first-class  apples  can  be  exhibited. 

Each  pupil  should  bring  a  plate  of  four  or  five  apples  as 
nearly  first-class  as  he  can  get.  Arrange  the  plates  of  apples 
on  a  table  before  the  class,  and  let  each  pupil  score  and  mark 
all  the  plates  of  apples.  Use  the  following  score-card: 


Owner  of  the  Exhibit Date , 


Points  Noted 

Perfect 
Score 

Pupil's 
Score 

Teacher's 
Score 

Uniformity    of    exhibit     

20 

Size   of  fruit  

15 

Color  

15 

15 

Quality                     

15 

Freedom  from  blemishes                     .  .  . 

20 

Total                  

100 

284 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Orchard  studies  of  insects  and  fungous  diseases.  If  prac- 
tical let  the  teacher  and  the  class  go  to  an  orchard  and  look 
for  insects  and  fungous  diseases.  Look  under  the  bark  and 
in  the  crevices  for  codling  moth  larvae,  and  on  young  branches 
for  San  Jose  scale.  Examine  fallen  fruit  for  curculio  stings 
and  apple  worms.  Look  for  apple  scab,  apple  rust,  brown 
rot,  black  rot,  and  other  diseases.  Make  note  of  all  observa- 
tions and  report  in  class  for  the  next  recitation. 


FIG.  38.     PACKING  FOR  THE  MARKET 

Reports  of  orchards  of  the  community.  Let  each  pupil 
select  an  apple  orchard  in  the  community  and  make  a  report 
based  upon  his  study  of  the  following  points : 

(a)  Size  of  the  orchard. 

(b)  Location,  site,  and  topography. 

(c)  Number  and  varieties  of  trees. 


FRUIT  GROWING  ON  THE  FARM  285 

(d)  Planting  plan. 

(e)  Soil,  and  soil  management. 

(f)  Drainage. 

(g)  Intercropping, 
(h)   Fertilizers  used, 
(i)   Pruning  done. 

(j)   Orchard  pests  common. 

(k)   Spraying  done. 

(1)   Estimated,  amount  of  fruit. 

(m)   Disposition  of  the  fruit. 

Decay  in  apples.  Select  three  ripe  apples  of  the  same 
variety  and  of  equal  degree  of  ripeness  and  bring  them  before 
the  class. 

Strike  against  the  side  of  one  so  as  to  bruise  the  surface 
without  breaking  the  skin. 

Bruise  the  second  apple  so  that  the  skin  is  broken. 

Leave  the  third  apple  uninjured. 

Place  the  three  apples  away  somewhere  in  the  room  where 
they  will  not  be  disturbed,  and  observe  the  results  from  day 
to  day. 

Which  apple  decays  first? 

Of  what  use  is  the  skin  of  the  apple? 

Note — It  should  be  understood  that  lists  of  trees  and  shrubs  to  be 
planted  in  special  localities  not  having  the  average  conditions 
described  for  the  central  Middle  West,  should  be  secured  from  the 
experiment  station  of  the  state  wherein  the  school  is  located. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  HOME  GARDEN 
VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Factors  in  locating  the  home  garden.  There  are  several 
important  factors  in  locating  the  home  garden.  Convenience 
to  the  house  is  one  of  them.  A  southern  or  southeastern  slope 
will  give  the  best  results  with  early  vegetables.  It  should  not 
be  too  steep,  however,  for  the  crops  may  then  suffer  from 
the  drought  and  the  heat  of  summer,  and  the  land  will  be 
likely  to  wash.  It  is  desirable  to  have  lower  ground  below 
the  garden  in  order  to  allow  for  air  and  water  drainage.  If 
the  ground  is  not  well  drained  naturally,  it  should,  of  course, 
be  tile-drained.  In  a  level  country  it  would  be  well  to  pro- 
vide some  protection  in  the  way  of  trees  or  buildings  on  the 
northern  side.  These,  however,  should  not  be  too  close  to 
the  garden.  The  kind  of  soil  is  important.  With  most  vege- 
tables sandy  loam  will  give  the  best  results.  One  should  not 
despair,  however,  if  he  does  not  have  the  ideal  soil,  for  most 
of  the  common  vegetables  adapt  themselves  to  a  wide  range 
of  soils.  "Where  the  slope  of  the  site  or  the  type  of  soil  varies 
appreciably,  one  should  plant  the  crops  accordingly.  For 
instance,  sweet  potatoes  should  be  planted  on  the  higher  and 
drier  places,  and  they  do  best  in  clay  loam;  watermelons  like 

286 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  287 

a  sand  ridge;  cucumbers  and  celery  prefer  the  low,  damp 
ground. 

The  mechanical  preparation  of  the  garden  soil.  The  ideal 
garden  soil  preparation  is  to  manure  and  plow  the  land  in 
the  fall.  This  practice  will  aid  in  rotting  the  manure  and 
any  other  organic  matter  that  might  be  turned  under.  It 
also  helps  to  destroy  injurious  insects,  diseases,  and  weeds, 
and  to  improve  the  physical  texture  of  the  soil.  If 
the  land  is»  naturally  loose,  it  need  not  be  plowed  again  in 
the  spring,  especially  for  the  early  short-season  crops.  In 
such  case,  disking  or  deep  cultivation  will  be  sufficient.  If 
the  earth  is  tight,  or  even  in  the  case  of  loose  textured  soil 
which  has  become  much  packed  during  the  winter,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  plow  again  in  the  spring. 

The  seed-bed.  The  best  way  to  prepare  a  seed-bed  is  as 
follows :  first,  disk  and  harrow ;  then  plow,  disk,  and  har- 
row in  order,  until  the  ground  is  thoroughly  pulverized  and 
properly  compacted.  A  drag  should  be'  used  if  necessary 
to  convert  the  surface  to  a  finely  pulverized  condition.  In 
this  connection  the  compacting  of  the  soil  should  be  empha- 
sized. Many  people  fail  to  work  the  soil  sufficiently  because 
they  fear  it  will  become  packed.  This  is  a  mistake,  as  most 
plants  need  a  somewhat  compact  soil  in  order  to  be  able  to 
gain  a  foothold.  The  above  method  will  insure  a  fine  pul- 
verization of  the  soil  to  the  full  depth  of  the  plowing,  and 
a  sufficiently  compact  soil  as  well. 

Some  vegetables  can  not  be  planted  until  May  or  June. 
In  the  case  of  land  to  be  devoted  to  such  crops,  a  shallow 
mulch  should  be  maintained  until  planting  time.  This  will 


288  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

save  the  moisture  and  make  the  preparation  of  the  soil  much 
easier,  a  fact  to  be  considered. 

Fertilizing  the  garden.  For  the  vegetable  garden  manure 
is  the  best  general  fertilizer.  It  should  be  applied  in  the  fall 
and  turned  under.  If,  however,  it  is  applied  in  the  spring, 
it  should  be  well-rotted  manure.  Rotted  manure  is  some- 
times used  for  top-dressing  purposes  for  the  growing  crops. 
Lime  should  be  used  every  few  years,  as  the  large  amount  of 
decaying  organic  matter  in  vegetable  lands  is  constantly  caus- 
ing the  formation  of  acids  in  the  soil.  Crop  refuse,  unless 
affected  with  some  serious  disease  or  insect,  should  always 
be  turned  under  in  preference  to  removing  or  burning  it. 
The  garden  is  a  good  place  to  burn  all  trash  that  accumu- 
lates about  the  yard  or  farm.  The  ashes  add  both  potassium 
and  lime.  Any  organic  matter  that  will  rot  easily  and  quickly 
should  be  plowed  under,  and  leaves,  branches,  etc.  should  be 
burned.  If  manure  is  scarce,  one  can  grow  cow-peas,  soy 
beans,  or  rye  to  help  keep  up  the  supply  of  organic  matter. 

Commercial  fertilizers  can  often  be  used  effectively  in  the 
garden.  For  nitrogen,  sodium  nitrate  is  usually  the  best 
form.  It  should  be  applied  as  a  top  dressing  to  the  growing 
plants,  using  80  to  100  pounds  per  acre,  and  applying  at 
intervals  of  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  The  nitrate  should  be 
scattered  about  the  plants,  taking  care  that  none  gets  on  the 
leaves.  It  should  be  cultivated  into  the  soil.  It  may  also  be 
spread  broadcast  before  or  during  a  rain.  The  number  of 
applications  will  depend  upon  the  length  of  the  growing  sea- 
son for  the  crop  treated.  In  case  of  crops  which,  bear  fruit, 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  289 

it  is  not  well  to  continue  the  applications  of  sodium  nitrate 
too  long,  as  it  may  stimulate  vine  growth  at  the  expense  of 
fruit  production.  Dried  blood  may  also  be  used  as  a  source 
of  nitrogen.  Nitrogen  in  dried  blood  is  not  so  subject  to 
loss  by  drainage  waters  as  that  in  sodium  nitrate.  When 
this  is  employed,  it  may  be  applied  in  relatively  large  amounts 
at  the  beginning  of  the  season. 

Steamed  bone-meal  is  a  good  form  of  phosphorus  for  the 
vegetable  garden,  although  the  phosphorus-  may  be  supplied 
much  more  cheaply  by  using  raw  rock  phosphate,  providing 
it  is  applied  two  or  three  years  in  advance.  The  use  of  acid 
phosphate  is  more  justifiable  in  vegetable  growing  where  quick 
results  are  desired  than  in  general  farming,  though  it  carries 
with  it  some  acid.  If  lime  is  applied  every  two  or  three  years, 
it  will  correct  any  acidity  that  may  accumulate  in  the  soil. 

Sulphate  of  potassium  is  a  good  form  of  potassium.  This 
element,  while  abundant  in  most  soils,  will  frequently  cause 
added  yields,  especially  in  the  case  of  root  crops.  Wood 
ashes  are  always  good  to  use,  and  all  the  wood  ashes  which 
accumulate  on  the  farm  should  be  carefully  stored  away 
under  cover  so  that  no  leaching  will  occur.  Wood  ashes  will 
not  give  better  results  anywhere  than  in  the  vegetable  gar- 
den. Coal  ashes  have  no  value  as  a  fertilizer,  though  they  can 
often  be  used  effectively  in  helping  to  loosen  a  tight  soil. 

Laying  out  the  home  garden.  Upon  the  laying  out  of  the 
garden  will  depend  largely  the  ease  of  tending  and  the 
most  profitable  use  of  the  land.  The  vegetables  should  be 
planted  in  long  rows  rather  than  in  patches.  If  not  enough 


290  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

of  one  vegetable  is  used  to  plant  a  whole  row,  two  or  three 
kinds  may  be  grown  in  a  single  row.  The  planting  should 
be  started  on  one  side  of  the  garden  and  should  proceed  across 
it  with  the  season.  It  is  hard  to  work  up  the  soil  if  patches 
are  left  between  beds  of  growing  vegetables.  The  coarser 
crops  that  are  cultivated  with  horse  tools  should  be  grouped 
together  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  finer  crops  that  are 
tended  with  wheel  hoes  should  also  be  placed  together.  The 
tall  growing  and  the  low  growing  crops  should  be  grouped 
with  their  kind,  so  far  as  conditions  will  permit.  The  vine 
crops  should  be  planted  together.  Crops  that  are  planted 
at  the  same  time  and  which  require  about  the  same  length  of 
season  to  mature  should  be  placed  together.  This  will  allow 
for  the  best  use  of  the  land  for  a  second  crop.  The  matter 
of  succession  should  not  be  overlooked.  Usually  the  suc- 
cession crops  can  be  planted  where  other  vegetables  have  been 
grown  earlier  in  the  season.  The  properly  planned  garden 
will  not  only  be  easy  to  tend,  but  will  facilitate  the  produc- 
tion of  crops  throughout  the  growing  season. 

Selecting  varieties  and  getting  g-ood  seed.  The  selection 
of  the  proper  varieties  is  one  of  the  most  important  features 
in  vegetable  gardening,  because,  no  matter  how  well  other 
factors  may  be  attended  to,  they  may  come  to  naught  if  the 
wrong  varieties  are  selected.  It  is  always  best  to  place  the 
main  dependence  upon  the  standard  and  proved  varieties. 
" Novelties"  should  be  used  for  trial  only  until  they  have 
proved  themselves,  no  matter  how  enticing  they  may  appear 
in  the  seed  catalogs.  One  should  pay  particular  attention 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  291 

to  selecting  varieties  that  are  adapted  to  the  season  in  which 
they  are  grown ;  for  instance,  one  would  not  want  to  use'  the 
same  variety  of  sweet  corn  for  the  early  crop  that  he  would 
use  for  the  main  season  crop. 

Seeds  should  be  purchased  from  a  reliable  seedsman,  one 
who  expects  to  stay  in  the  business  and  who  has  a  reputation 
to  maintain. 

Early  season  and  late  season  plants.  There  is  perhaps  no 
feature  in  vegetable  gardening  regarding  which  more  mis- 
takes are  made  than  the  time  of  planting  the  various  crops. 
Most  people  do  not  realize  that  the  thirty  or  forty  common 
vegetables  which  anyone  can  name  in  a  few  minutes  were 
brought  here  from  all  parts  of  the  earth,  and  that  we  can 
succeed  in  growing  them  here  by  furnishing  them  somewhat 
similar  conditions  to  those  under  which  they  originated  and 
developed.  Naturally,  coming  from  many  widely  different 
climates,  each  crop  has  its  special  temperature  and  moisture 
requirements.  We  recognize  this  tendency  by  growing  them 
during  a  time  of  the  year  best  suited  to  their  needs,  and  by 
planting  them  in  moist  or  dry  locations  according  to  their 
preferences.  Happily,  the  thirty  or  forty  different  vege- 
tables divide  themselves  into  groups  according  to  the  tem- 
perature and  moisture  requirements,  so  that,  instead  of  it 
being  a  problem  of  remembering  thirty  or  forty  different 
cultural  methods,  we  may  reduce  the  number  to  a  very  few 
by  dividing  the  vegetables  into  groups. 

All  vegetables  may  be  divided  into  two  general  groups, 
cool-season  and  warm-season  groups.  The  cool-season  crops 


292 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


are  those  which  originated  in  temperate  climates,  and  the 
warm-season  crops  are  those  which  originated  in  the  tropical 
and  subtropical  regions. 

Planting  table.  The  following  table  takes  into  account 
the  seasonal  requirements  of  the  various  crops,  and  also  indi- 
cates the  varieties  that  should  be  planted  at  different  times. 
There  are  other  varieties  which  could,  no  doubt,  be  well  added 
to  this  list,  but  those  named  can  be  depended  upon  in  gen- 
eral to  give  satisfaction.  By  selecting  the  varieties  named 
and  planting  them  as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  times  men- 
tioned, taking  into  consideration  the  latitude  of  the  place 
in  which  they  are  grown,  the  various  vegetables  can  be  had 
at  all  times  of  the  year  when  it  is  possible  to  grow  them. 


PLANTING  DATES  AND  VARIETIES  RECOMMENDED  FOE 
FARMERS'  VEGETABLE  GARDENS  IN  ILLINOIS 

By  C.  E.  Durst,  Associate  in  Olericulture,  University  of  Illinois 

Note — The  times  for  planting  named  are  especially  adapted  for 
central  Illinois;  in  southern  Illinois  plant  early  crops  from  one  to 
two  weeks  earlier  in  each  case,  and  in  northern  Illinois  about  one 
week  later. 


Planting 
Dates 

Crop 

Varieties  Suggested  for 
Illinois  Planting 

Perennial 
Crops 

Asparagus 
Rhubarb 
Winter  Onions 

Palmetto.    (Plant  one  year  old  roots  in 
early  spring.) 
Victoria  or  Linnaeus.    (Divide  old  roots 
and  plant  in  early  spring.) 
Egyptian.    (Replant  the  sets  each  year 
about  September  1.) 

THE  HOME  GARDEN 


293 


Planting 
Dates 

Crop 

Varieties  Suggested  for 
Illinois  Planting 

April  1 

Potatoes 
Peas 

Onion  Sets 
Onion  Seed 

Beets 
Turnips 
Carrots 
Parsnips 
Parsley 
Radishes 
Spinach 
Leaf  Lettuce 

Early  Ohio. 
Alaska  (climbing),  American  Wonder 
(dwarf). 
Yellow  Bottom. 
Southport  Yellow  Globe,  Southport 
White  Globe. 
Crosby's  Egyptian. 
Early  Purple  Top  Milan. 
Chantenay  or  Half  Long. 
Hollow  Crown  or  Improved  Guernsey. 
Double  Curled. 
Early  Scarlet  Turnip,  White  Strausburg. 
Victoria  or  Long  Standing. 
Black  Seeded  Simpson. 

April  10 

Radishes 
Head  Lettuce 

Peas 
Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

White  Strausburg. 
May  King.    (Start  plants  in  hotbed 
March  1.) 
American  Wonder  or  Gradus  (climbing). 
Early  Jersey  Wakefield  or  Copenhagen 
Market.    (Start  plants  in  hotbed 
March  1.) 
Burpee's  Dry  Weather.    (Start  plants  in 
hotbed  March  1.) 

Mayl 

Cabbage 

String  Beans 
Sweet  Corn 

Early  Summer.    (Start  plants  in  hotbed 
about  March  15.) 
Davis  White  Wax,  Stringless  Green  Pod. 
Golden  Bantam,  White  Cob  Cory,  White 
Evergreen  or  Country  Gentleman. 

May  15 

Tomatoes 

Lima  Beans 
Cucumber 
Summer  Squash 
Winter  Squash 
Watermelons 
Muskmelons 
Sweet  Corn 

Chalk's     Jewel,     Stone,     Bonnie     Best. 
(Start  plants  March  1  in  hotbeds.) 
Henderson's  Bush,  Lima. 
White  Spine  or  Henderson's  Perfected. 
Fordhook,  Giant  Crookneck. 
Hubbard. 
Halbert  Honey  or  Kleckley  Sweet. 
Netted  Gem,  Hoodo,  Osage,  Rocky  Ford. 
White  Evergreen  or  Country  Gentleman. 

294 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Dates 
Planting 

Crop 

Varieties  Suggested  for 
Illinois  Planting 

Junel 

Eggplants 

Pepper 
String  Beans 
Sweet  Potato 

New  York  Improved  Purple.   (Start 
plants  in  hotbed  March  15.) 
Chinese  Giant,  Red  Cluster. 
Stringless  Green  Pod,  Saddleback  Wax. 
Yellow  Jersey. 

June  15 

Sweet  Corn 
Late  Potato 
Late  Cabbage 
Cucumbers 

White  Evergreen  or  Country  Gentleman. 
Rural  New  Yorker. 
Flat  Dutch,  Danish  Ball  Head. 
(For  pickles.)  White  Spine. 

Julyl 

Celery 

Beans 
Sweet  Corn 

Golden  Self  Blanching  Giant  Pascal. 
(Start  plants  in  frames  about  April  1.) 
Stringless  Green  Pod,  Saddleback  Wax. 
White  Evergreen  or  Country  Gentleman. 

July  25 

Turnips 
Beans 

Red  Top  Strap  Leaf. 
Stringless  Green  Pod,  Saddleback  Wax. 

August  15 

Winter  Radish 
Fall  Spinach 

Chinese  White,  Long  Black  Spanish. 
Dwarf  Siberian. 

Seed  sawing.  The  importance  of  planting  good  seed  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  Upon  the  selection  of  the  seed  often 
depends  the  success  or  failure  of  the  crop.  The  most  impor- 
tant factors  determining  the  quality  of  the  seed  are  life  and 
adherence  to  name  and  type.  Good  seed  is  expected  to  be 
reasonably  free  from  weed  seeds  and  dirt,  but  the  grower 
should  be  sure  his  seed  is  clean  before  planting  it.  The  best 
practice  is  to  plant  fresh  seeds,  preferably  not  more  than 
one  year  old.  Seeds  should  be  stored  in  tight  bags  in  cool, 
dry  places.  Successful  seed  sowing  requires  a  thoroughly 
prepared  seed-bed.  The  more  thorough  the  preparation  of 
the  seed-bed,  the  less  work  is  required  to  keep  the  ground  in 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  295 

condition  during  the  growing  season.  In  the  home  garden 
the  seeds  are  usually  planted  by  hand  by  dropping  them  in 
the  hills  or  furrows  previously  prepared.  After  planting,  the 
soil  should  be  firmed  by  pressing  it  down  with  the  back  of 
the  hoe.  For  the  best  and  quickest  results,  seed  should  be 
planted  in  freshly  prepared  ground. 

Advisability  of  the  hotbed.  Hotbeds  are  practically  indis- 
pensable in  the  making  of  a  good  vegetable  garden.  Their 
greatest  use  is  in  starting  plants  for  outdoor  crops.  By 
their  help  one  can  have  earlier  crops  in  the  case  of  some 
vegetables,  and,  what  is  more  important,  he  can  grow  some 
crops  which  could  not  otherwise  be  grown,  as  long  season 
crops  like  eggplants  and  sweet  potatoes,  etc.  They  can  also 
be  used  for  growing  such  crops  as  lettuce  or  radishes  to  full 
maturity  out  of  their  season. 

Principles  of  successful  transplanting".  Transplanting, 
while  it  must  always  be  looked  upon  as  more  or  less  injurious 
to  the  plants,  is  a  necessity  in  vegetable  gardening.  It  is 
used  principally  .for  inducing  earliness;  it  also  enables  us 
to  grow  such  crops,  for  instance,  as  eggplants  which  other- 
wise require  too  long  a  season.  After  getting  a  good  start  in 
a  hotbed  or  frame,  plants  may  later  be  removed  to  freshly 
worked  soil,  without  having  to  battle  with  bad  weather  and 
adverse  soil  conditions  Avhen  they  can  least  endure  them. 

The  time  of  planting  the  seeds  will  depend  altogether  upon 
the  crop  grown.  The  operations  will  be  facilitated  if  the 
seeds  are  sown  in  shallow  flats,  which  may  be  carried  about 
as  desired.  When  the  plants  have  begun  to  show  their  first 
pair  of  true  leaves,  they  should  be  shifted;  that  is,  taken  up 


296  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

from  the  seed  flat  and  planted  in  other  flats  or  in  pots  where 
they  are  given  greater  freedom.  In  the  case  of  eggplants  and 
head  lettuce,  which  do  not  transplant  easily,  it  is  better  to 
handle  the  plants  in  pots  than  in  flats,  for  they  transplant 
to  the  open  more  readily  and  their  root  system  is  injured  less. 
Cabbage,  cauliflower,  kohlrabi,  Brussels  sprouts,  and  toma- 
toes can  be  very  well  handled  in  flats,  or  they  may  be  trans- 
planted to  the  open  bed.  Onions  are  sometimes  started  in 
the  hotbed  in  order  to  secure  a  larger  bulb,  but  they  are 
seldom  transplanted.  Beets  are  often  started  in  greenhouses 
or  hotbeds  by  market  gardeners  to  secure  an  earlier  crop. 

A  short  time  previous  to  planting  in  the  field,  the  plants 
should  be  transferred  to  a  cold  frame  so  that  they  may 
" harden  off."  A  cold  frame  is  like  a  hotbed  with  the  excep- 
tion that  it  has  no  bottom  heat.  ''Hardening  off"  means 
accustoming  the  plants  to  the  open  weather  conditions  and  to 
the  relatively  dry  open  field  conditions,  so  that  they  will  not 
suffer  from  the  transfer  to  the  open.  The  cold  frame  is  cov- 
ered for  the  first  few  nights  and  is  left  open  on  all  except 
cool  days.  Gradually  the  plants  are  exposed  to  colder  and 
colder  weather,  until  finally  the  covers  are  left  off  altogether 
for  a  few  days  or  a  week  previous  to  transplanting  to  the 
field.  The  plants  should  receive  sufficient  water  to  keep  them 
from  dying,  but  gradually  the  amount  of  water  applied 
should  be  reduced  while  they  are  in  the  cold  frame,  so  that 
finally  they  will  get  along  with  the  normal  rain  supply. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  let  the  soil  become  rather  dry  for 
several  days  before  transplanting.  This,  coupled  with  the 
exposure  of  the  plants  to  cold  nights,  will  harden  the  tissues 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  297 

and  fit  them  for  transfer  to  the  open  soil.  A  few  hours  before 
the  actual  transplanting,  the  soil  should  be  heavily  watered. 
The  plants,  being  "thirsty,"  will  take  up  enough  water  to 
fill  their  tissues,  in  which  condition  they  will  be  able  to  allow 
more  transpiration.  The  plants  should  not  be  removed  from 
the  frames  until  the  soil  has  become  mellow.  Puddling  the 
soil  by  working  it  while  wet  should  always  be  avoided.  As 
large  a  part  of  the  root  system  should  be  removed  with  the 
plant  as  possible,  and  it  is  well  to  take  as  much  soil  with  the 
roots  as  will  cling  to  them. 

In  transplanting  plants  to  the  field  one  should  firm  the 
soil  about  the  roots  thoroughly.  If  a  plant  is  properly  trans- 
planted, watering  in  the  field  is  scarcely  ever  necessary,  but 
in  the  home  garden  one  will  insure  a  stand  if  he  takes  no 
chances  and  waters  the  plants.  When  water  is  applied,  it  is 
always  best  to  pour  it  into  a  basin  made  about  the  plant,  allow- 
ing it  to  disappear,  and  then  covering  the  wet  surface  with 
mellow,  loose  soil. 

The  principal  factor  in  causing  the  death  of  plants  is  an 
excessive  transpiration  from  the  leaves.  The  removal  of  a 
part  of  the  top  of  the  plant  will  reduce  the  transpiration  and 
often  save  the  plants  during  a  dry  period.  Not  all  plants 
can  be  "sheared,"  but  onions,  beets,  celery,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  cabbage  will  allow  this  method.  The  best  implement 
for  transplanting,  everything  considered,  is  a  pair  of  human 
hands.  Other  serviceable  tools  are  the  garden  trowel,  the 
dibber,  and  the  spade.  In  commercial  gardening,  a  trans- 
planting machine  which  sets  the  plants  as  fast  as  a  team  of 
horses  draws  the  machine  is  often  used. 


298  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Thinning  vegetables.  Plants  must  have  sufficient  room  if 
they  are  to  develop  property.  All  excessive  plants  are  noth- 
ing less  than  weeds.  With  many  vegetable  crops  the  plant- 
ing is  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  plants  room.  Cab- 
bage, tomatoes,  sweet  corn,  and  beans  are  examples.  With 
most  of  the  small  seeded  crops,  however,  the  seeding  is  usually 
liberally  done  on  account  of  the  weak  embryo  and  the  sus- 
ceptibility of  the  young  plants  to  the  weather  and  soil  con- 
ditions. Market  gardeners  even  go  so  far  as  to  test  the  seeds 
in  advance  and  plant  accordingly,  so  as  to  insure  a  good  stand 
and  yet  prevent  overcrowding.  In  this  way  little  thinning  is 
necessary. 

The  vegetables  commonly  planted  in  drills  in  the  field  and 
which  require  thinning  are  beets,  parsnips,  parsley,  salsify, 
and  onions.  Melons  and  cucumbers  are  often  planted  thickly 
in  the  hill  and  thinned  when  the  plants  have  become  well 
started.  The  thinning  of  plants  which  are  started  indoors 
and  transplanted  to  the  open  field  is  accomplished  by  shift- 
ing the  plants  to  other  fiats  or  pots,  as  already  explained,  and 
planting  them  in  the  field  one  in  a  place.  The  thinning  of 
all  crops  should  be  done  as  early  as  the  size  of  the  plants 
will  permit.  In  case  of  onions,  since  some  size  will  be  reached 
before  the  plants  will  pull  out  without  breaking  off,  the 
thinning  may  be  delayed.  Thinning  of  the  crops  insures 
specimens  of  larger  and  more  uniform  size,  and  a  much 
greater  percentage  of  the  product  is  marketable  or  usable. 

Cultivation.  The  control  of  weeds  and  the  provision  of  a 
soil  mulch  is  the  most  important  work  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  garden.  Some  people  even  doubt  if  cultivation  has  much 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  299 

value  if  there  are  no  weeds.  After  each  rain,  as  soon  as  the 
ground  will  permit,  a  shallow  soil  mulch  should  be  made  and 
the  crust  broken  up. 

Garden  tools.  Every  gardener  should  have  a  wheel  hoe. 
It  will  make  gardening  a  pleasure  instead  of  a  drudgery. 
There  are  two  kinds:  The  single  wheel  used  between  the 
rows,  the  best  use  of  which  is  insured  when  the  rows  of  vege- 
tables are  planted  exactly  parallel;  and  the  double  wheel 
hoe,  which,  like  the  two-horse  cultivator,  straddles  the  row 
and  cultivates  both  sides  at  once.  This  is  the  better  imple- 
ment to  use  while  the  crops  are  small.  Several  attachments 
are  provided  for  both  types.  The  hoe  blades  can  be  so  set 
that  they  will  scrape  very  close  to  the  row,  killing  weeds  and 
providing  a  shallow  soil  mulch.  Another  attachment  which 
comes  with  the  machine  is  a  set  of  cultivator  teeth  for  use 
when  the  plants  are  larger.  In  the  home  garden  it  is  probably 
not  advisable  to  have  a  seed  drill.  This  tool,  while  indispens- 
able in  planting  an  area  of  any  considerable  size  to  fine  seed, 
is  not  so  well  adapted  for  the  home  garden.  There  is  nothing 
better  than  the  human  hand  for  distributing  the  seeds  as  they 
should  be,  and  there  is  nothing  which  adapts  itself  more 
easily  to  difference  in  thickness  of  seeding  and  difference  in 
size  of  seeds. 

THE  MOST  SERIOUS  GARDEN  PESTS 

Green  cabbage  worm.  This  worm  is  the  greatest  obstacle 
to  cabbage  growing.  It  can  be  controlled  early  in  the  sea- 
son with  arsenical  poisons,  which  may  be  used  without  dan- 


300 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


ger  to  human  beings.  Some  persons  even  say  that  it  can  be 
used  after  the  plants  have  begun  to  head.  While  this  view 
seems  reasonable,  it  is  perhaps  best  to  be  on  the  safe  side 
and  not  use  poisons  after  the  heads  begin  to  form.  Later 
pyrethrum  and  white  hellebore  may  be  used. 

Striped  cucumber  beetle.  This  pest  may  be  controlled  by 
applying  Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  to  the  young 
plants.  It  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  plants  appear  above 

ground,  and  plants  should  be  kept 
covered  on  both  the  upper  and 
lower  sides  of  the  leaves  with  this 
material  until  the  vines  have  be- 
gun to  run.  For  cucumbers  or  mel- 
ons the  standard  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  too  strong,  and  a  mixture 
containing  half  the  usual  amount 
of  copper  sulphate  should  be  used. 
A  mixture  of  4  pounds  lime,  2 
pounds  copper  sulphate,  and  2 
pounds  lead  arsenate  in  50  gallons 
of  water  will  not  injure  the  plants 
and  will  effectively  control  the 
insect. 

Lice.  Melon  lice  often  destroy  a 
melon,  or  cucumber  crop  in  a  few  days.  This  insect  may  be 
effectively  controlled  by  spraying  with  a  40  per  cent  solution 
of  nicotine  sulphate,  reduced  to  one  part  in  one  thousand 
parts  of  water.  This  will  effectively  control  the  lice,  and  will 


FIG.   39. 
USING  THE  HAND   SPRAY 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  301 

not  injure  the  foliage.  The  lice  live  mainly  on  the  under  sur- 
faces of  the  leaves.  As  they  do  not  chew,  but  rather  get  their 
food  by  sticking  their  beak  into  the  tissue  of  the  plant  and 
drawing  out  the  sap,  it  is  necessary  to  cover  their  body  with 
the  material  named  in  order  to  kill  them.  Arsenical  poisons 
are  of  no  help  in  controlling  this  insect.  The  method  of  apply- 
ing the  spray  is  as  important  as  the  material  itself.  For  the 
best  results  use  a  Yermoral  nozzle  with  bent  shank,  fastened 
on  the  end  of  a  spraying  rod.  If  the  nozzle  is  worked  about 
and  between  the  foliage  thoroughly  and  a  fairly  high  pressure 
is  maintained,  the  material  will  be  thrown  out  in  a  fine  spray 
and  practically  every  insect  on  the  plants  will  be  reached. 

Colorado  potato  beetle.  Paris  green,  or  lead  arsenate, 
mixed  with  a  little  slaked  lime,  are  the  insecticides  to  use  for 
this  pest. 

Flea  beetles  often  cause  serious  damage  to  tomatoes,  egg- 
plants, and  potatoes.  This  is  a  small  black  beetle  which 
jumps  from  plant  to  plant  when  disturbed.  It  may  be  effect- 
ively controlled  by  keeping  plants  covered  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead. 

Cutworms.  These  often  work  serious  damage  in  the  spring 
of  the  year  while  the  ground  is  still  cold.  It  is  always  well 
to  avoid  planting  vegetables  on  sod  ground  if  possible.  Some- 
times manure,  which  has  laid  on  a  pile  during  the  previous 
summer,  has  provided  an  ideal  place  for  the  cutworm  moths 
to  lay  their  eggs,  and  such  manure  often  adds  multitudes  of 
cutworm  eggs  to  the  soil.  If  the  number  of  plants  is  not 
too  great,  the  cutworms  can  be  best  controlled  by  uncovering 


302  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  earth  about  the  plants  which  have  been  attacked  and 
hunting  out  the  cutworms.  Bran  mixed  with  molasses  and 
a  small  amount  of  Paris  green  placed  in  small  pits  on  the 
higher  spots  of  the  land  will  often  be  effective  as  a  poison 
bait. 

Diseases.  The  leaf  spots  and  fruit  rots  so  common  in 
vegetables  are  caused  by  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases.  Some 
of  these  can  not  be  controlled,  but  most  of  them  yield  readily 
to  systematic  applications  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Preparing  products  for  market.  To  sell  garden  products 
profitably  one  must  know  how  to  make  them  attractive  to 
the  purchaser.  Products  should  be  clean,  of  proper  size, 
shape,  and  degree  of  ripeness.  Those  that  are  marketed  in 
bunches,  baskets  or  other  containers  should  be  uniform  in 
these  respects. 

Usually  there  are  two  grades  of  products ;  fancy  selected, 
and  number  one,  besides  culls.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  number  one  is  the  lower  grade.  The  fancy  selected 
grade  will  be  of  proper  size,  color,  degree  of  ripeness  and 
free  from  blemishes.  A  bunch  or  a  basket  will  be  uniform 
in  these  respects.  Size  should  be  characteristic  of  the  va- 
riety. A  beet  the  size  of  one's  head  would  not  be  graded 
as  fancy  selected.  Color  and  shape  'are  other  characteristics 
which  should  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  different 
varieties  of  products.  The  degree  of  ripeness  at  which  the 
products  are  to  be  packed  for  market  will  depend  upon  the 

Note — Small  fruits  should  be  included  in  the  garden:  strawber- 
ries, blackberries,  red  and  black  raspberries,  gooseberries,  currants, 
grapes,  etc.,  but  in  a  course  of  study  including  so  many  phases  of 
agriculture  these  topics  can  not  be  taken  up. 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  303 

distance  to  market.  Some  products  which  are  to  be  shipped 
some  distance  will  be  picked  green. 

In  grading  products  it  may  be  well  to  use  a  typical  speci- 
men as  a  sample  and  compare  others  with  it.  The  following 
description*  of  the  grades  of  tomatoes  may  serve  to  make 
this  point  of  grading  clear.  Fancy  selected  tomatoes  are 
sound,  smooth,  regular  in  shape,  free  from  cracks,  and  of 
such  size  that  twelve  specimens  will  fill  one  basket  of  a  flat 
or  a  four  basket  crate.  Number  one  grade  is  composed  of 
sound  specimens,  slightly  inferior  to  the  fancy  selected 
grade  in  size  and  smoothness,  or  with  slight  cracks  about 
the  stem  which  may  have  healed  over  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  leaking.  Culls  are  badly  cracked,  rough,  over- 
ripe or  under-sized  specimens.  Tomatoes  which  are  smaller 
than  twenty  to  the  basket  would  be  regarded  as  culls. 

Products  which  are  to  be  bunched  may  be  first  graded 
and  then  washed  after  bunching.  This  makes  handling 
easier.  All  root  crops,  early  in  the  season,  are  bunched. 
Radishes  (except  the  winter  type)  are  bunched  at  all  sea- 
sons. In  this  class  are  green  onions,  asparagus,  rhubarb, 
kohl-rabi,  parsley,  leeks,  celery  and  sometimes  leaf  lettuce. 
String,  raffia  and  tape  are  used  in  tying.  Rubber  bands 
are  often  used  for  asparagus. 

The  size  of  the  bunch  will  depend  upon  the  product. 
Bunches  of  radishes  may  contain  five  or  six  or  ten  or  twelve 
depending  upon  size.  As  a  novelty,  white  and  scarlet  rad- 
ishes may  be  arranged  in  the  same  bunch.  Asparagus 


*Lloyd — Productive  Vegetable  Gardening. 


304  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

bunches  should  be  about  eight  inches  in  length  and  of  such 
circumference  that  the  hand  will  go  about  two-thirds  of  the 
way  around. 

Bunches  of  onions  will  appear  to  better  advantage  if  the 
tops  are  trimmed  off.  The  tops  of  all  small  beets  and  car- 
rots (in  size  about  forty  to  the  quart)  should  be  left  on. 
Later  in  the  season  larger  specimens  may  be  marketed  in 
bulk  with  the  tops  removed. 

The  importance  of  uniformity  in  the  appearance  of  such 
products  may  be  demonstrated  by  comparing  two  bunches, 
one  of  which  contains  specimens  uniform  in  all  respects 
and  the  other,  products  of  all  sizes,  colors,  shapes,  and  de- 
grees of  ripeness. 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  important  factors  in  locating  the  home  vege- 
table garden? 

2.  What  is  ideal  garden  soil? 

3.  Name  the  steps  in  the  preparation  of  a  good  garden 
seed-bed. 

4.  What  are  the  best  and  most  practical  fertilizers  for  the 
garden  soil? 

5.  State  some  principles  to  guide  one  in  laying  out  the 
garden  for  seeding. 

6.  What  shall  determine  the  varieties  and  the  time  for 
planting  ? 

7.  Name  the  standard  early  season  and  late  season  vege- 
tables. 

8.  What  are  the  purposes  and  advantages  of  the  hotbed? 

9.  What  vegetables  are  successfully  transplanted? 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  305 

10.  What  should  be  accomplished  in  garden  cultivation  ? 

11.  What  are  some  modern  garden  tools? 

12.  List  the  most   serious   garden  insect  pests  and   dis- 
eases, and  explain  how  to  combat  two  of  them. 

13.  Why  should  everyone  have  a  garden? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND 'HOME  PROJECTS 

The  garden  plans.  Let  each  pupil  carefully  draw  to  a 
scale  the  plan  of  the  vegetable  garden  as  it  is  laid  out  at  his 
home. 

After  this  study  let  each  pupil  draw  a  garden  plan  as  he 
would  carry  it  out  in  a  home  garden  of  his  own. 

If  it  is  feasible  to  have  a  school  garden,  let  each  member 
of  the  class  draw  a  plan  of  such  a  proposed  garden. 

Laying1  out  and  planting  the  school  garden.  If  condi- 
tions at  the  school  are  favorable  to  the  employment  of  labor 
all  through  the  garden  season,  and  if  sufficient  land  is  near 
the  school  to  justify  such  an  undertaking,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  carry  on  a  school  garden.  For  a  high-school  garden  the 
plan  of  making  a  demonstration  home  garden  for  an  average- 
sized  family  seems  the  best  one.  The  garden  should  be  planted 
and  cared  for  as  a  class  enterprise.  Small  fruits  and  orna- 
mental planting  may  make  the  whole  scheme  a  valuable,  prac- 
tical piece  of  work  in  connection  with  the  school  study  of 
vegetable  gardening.  The  garden  should  be  carried  on  as 
nearly  in  accordance  with  directions  and  correct  principles 
which  are  given  in  this  chapter  as  is  possible.  For  individual 
work  in  vegetable  gardening  the  home  project  garden  is  to 
be  recommended  as  most  desirable. 

Cold  frames  and  hotbeds.  Since  the  work  with  cold 
frames  and  hotbeds  would  come  during  the  school  season,  it  is 
advisable  by  all  means  to  undertake  this  practical  exercise  at 
school. 


306  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Cold  frames  are  devices  for  growing  plants  early  or  harden- 
ing them  off  for  the  field  by  making  use  of  the  heat  of  the 
sun  through  glass  without  any  foundation  heating.  They 
regulate  heat  and  moisture  and  protect  plants  from  heavy 
wind  and  dashing  rain.  The  standard  size  of  the  cold  frame 
sash  is  three  by  six  feet,  and  the  length  of  the  cold  frame 
will  depend  upon  the  number  of  sashes  to  be  used. 

Make  the  frame  six  feet  wide,  eight  inches  high  in  front 
and  twelve  inches  high  at  the  back,  of  either  one-inch  or  two- 
inch  lumber.  A  lean-to  cold  frame  on  the  outside  of  a  build- 
ing may  be  made  by  nailing  a  two-by-four  piece  of  lumber 
against  the  building  and  constructing  the  frame  upon  it. 
Good  garden  soil  will  furnish  the  seed-bed  for  the  plants  to 
be  grown  in  the  cold  frame. 

For  a  permanent  hotbed  a  pit  about  two  feet  in  depth  is 
dug  and,  if  it  is  desirable  to  make  one  so  large,  the  length 
may  be  six  or  nine  feet,  with  a  width  of  three  feet — the  length 
of  a  window  sash  to  be  used  over  it.  The  sides  and  ends  of 
the  pit  are  supported  by  a  lining  of  plank  held  by  corner 
posts.  The  plank  frame  should  extend  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground  eight  inches  at  the  front  and  twelve  inches  at  the 
back.  The  hotbed  is  heated  by  horse  manure  containing  straw 
bedding  or  one-third  leaves.  Prepare  the  manure  by  stacking 
it  in  a  compost  heap,  turn  it  over  every  three  or  four  days 
and  restack.  After  three  or  four  days  more,  mix  it  care- 
fully and  spread  it  evenly  in  the  hotbed  pit,  about  fifteen, 
inches  deep.  Tramp  down  firmly.  Scatter  four  or  five  inches 
of  good  garden  loam  over  the  manure  in  the  hotbed.  Make 
frames  for  the  sash  and  place  them  over  the  hotbed;  allow 
it  to  heat  up.  Do  not  plant  any  seeds  in  it  until  the  tem- 
perature subsides  to  at  least  90  degrees. 

Early  lettuce,  radishes,  cabbages,  tomatoes,  eggplants,  and 
other  vegetables  may  be  sown  thickly  in  rows  four  or  six 
inches  apart  in  the  hotbed,  and  under  proper  care  the  school 


THE  HOME  GARDEN 


307 


will  have  plants  to  supply  the  neighborhood  from  its  own 
garden  by  the  time  warm  weather  comes. 

In  addition  to  the  sash,  mats  of  carpet  will  be  needed  on 
cold  nights.  During  bright  days  it  may  be  necessary  to  lift 
the  sash  a  little  to  allow  the  hot  air  to  escape  and  to  give 
ventilation.  Hotbeds  should  be  watered  in  the  morning  on 
bright  days. 

Draw  a  plan  of  the  hotbed  and  keep  a  notebook  record  of 
the  work  done. 

Cultural  requirements  of  vegetables.  Place  in  the  note- 
book the  following  table  and  fill  out  the  cultural  requirements 
of  the  standard  garden  vegetables  grown. 


Vegetables 

Soil 
Requirements 

Season 
Requirements 

Care 
Requirements 

• 

Outline  for  studying  vegetables.  A  better  crop  can  be 
produced  if  the  grower  knows,  before  planting  time,  the 
soil  requirements,  cultural  methods  and  harvesting  pos- 
sibilities of  each  vegetable  grown  in  the  garden. 

The  following  outline  has  been  prepared  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  important  that  children  fill  out  a  sheet  of  their  note- 
book for  each  vegetable  to  be  grown.  Subject-matter  may 


308  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

be  found  in  seed  catalogs  published  by  local  seed  firms,  in 
bulletins  published  by  state  experiment  stations,  in  bulletins 
published  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  in  any  good  book  on  vegetable  production.  Frequent 
conversations  with  successful  gardeners  will  tend  to  clear 
up  some  of  the  things  that  are  not  understood: 

Outline 

Name  and  variety  of  the  vegetable  to  be  planted. 

Soil  requirements. 

Fertilizer  requirements. 

Method  of  propagation — seed,  bulb,  and  tuber. 

Seasons  of  planting. 

Methods  of  planting. 

1.  How  far  apart  are  the  rows? 

2.  How  far  apart  are  the  plants  in  the  rows? 

3.  How  deep  is  the  seed,  tuber,  or  plant  planted? 

4.  How  many  seeds  are  needed  for  100  feet  of  drill? 
Location  of  the  vegetable  in  the  garden. 

3,  Is  the  vegetable  sun-loving  in  its  habits? 

2.  Is  the  vegetable  shade-loving  in  its  habits? 

3.  Will  the  vegetable  shade  or  crowd  other  vegetables? 
Care  of  the  crop. 

1.  How  often  should  the  crop  be  cultivated? 

2.  What  is  the  required  distance  between  plants  for  the  full  devel- 

opment of  the  vegetable? 

3.  Does  this  vegetable  need  to  be  transplanted? 

4.  Does  this  vegetable  need  to  be  staked? 

5.  Does  this  vegetable  need  to  be  blanched? 

6.  Does  this  vegetable  need  to  be  sprayed? 

(a)  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  spray? 

(b)  What  is  the  best  spray  to  use? 

(c)  How  often  should  the  crop  be  sprayed? 
Harvesting. 

1.  When  should  this  vegetable  mature? 

2.  How  is  it  prepared  for  home  use? 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  309 

3.  What  is  the  canning  possibility? 

4.  Is  there  a  market  demand  for  this  vegetable? 

(a)  How  should  it  be  prepared  for  market? 

(b)  What  price  should  it  bring? 

5.  What  seeds  can  be  selected  for  next  year's  crop? 

6.  How  is  the  fresh  vegetable  stored  for  winter  use? 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  COUNTRY  BEAUTIFUL 

The  country's  fine  art.  One  source  of  genuine  happiness 
in  human  life  is  to  be  able  to  create  or  appreciate  some  work 
of  art.  We  have  usually  thought  that  music,  painting,  litera- 
ture, architecture,  etc.,  were  the  only  fine  arts,  and  that  these 
at  their  best  were  not  within  reach  of  country  people.  Not 
only  are  these  fine  arts  becoming  available  to  country  people, 
but  the  revived  art  of  landscape  gardening,  coming  with  the 
development  of  agriculture,  makes  possible  the  use  and  appre- 
ciation of  one  of  the  finest  of  fine  arts  by  the  people  of  the 
open  country. 

Beautifying-  home  and  sjchool  grounds.  There  are  a  few 
rules  agreed  upon  by  landscape  artists  which  will  guide  begin- 
ners to  use  good  taste  in  planting  home  and  school  grounds. 
These  may  be  called  the  A,  B,  C's  of  landscape  gardening. 

A.  An  open  greensward  in  front  of  the  house. 

B.  Borders  and  backgrounds  massed  with  trees  and  shrubs. 

C.  Curved  lines  in  walks,   arrangement  of  trees,  shrub 
masses,  flower  groups,  and  the  planting  of  foundations. 

Under  A  we  must  avoid  cluttering  up  the  green  lawn  with 
flower  beds,  sheared  shrubs,  and  other  artificial  affairs.  A 
single  tree  beautiful  in  itself  is  not  objectionable  on  the 
lawn. 

310 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  311 

Under  B  the  taller  trees  and  shrubs  must  be  in  the  rear, 
and  the  whole  growth  shaded  down  in  solid  mass  to  the 
ground  in  front,  where  borders  of  flowers  may  be  planted. 
These  borders  may  swing  out  in  curves  into  the  lawn. 

Under  C  the  requirements  are  that  there  shall  be  few 
straight  lines  in  the  natural  landscape  planting.  If  the  walks 
are  long  enough,  they  should  gently  curve,  and  shrub  masses 
may  be  planted  in  these  curves.  The  trees  and  shrubs  should 
not  be  in  straight  rows,  but  in  masses  and  groups  curving 
naturally  into  the  lawn.  The  angles  formed  by  the  buildings 
and  ground  should  be  broken  by  shrubs  and  flower  borders. 

Materials  to  use  in  planting.  There  is  little  excuse  for 
country  home  and  school  grounds  being  barren  and  unplanted 
when  they  stand  in  the  midst  of  such  a  wealth  of  nature's 
materials  for  making  them  beautiful.  Fortunately  nature  has 
aided  the  indolent  and  indifferent  man  in  many  cases  by 
growing  the  trees  and  shrubs  in  abundance  about  his  home 
grounds.  Where  such  is  the  case  he  ought  to  be  enjoined 
from  cutting  them  down  except  to  shape  their  arrangement 
in  harmony  with  correct  principles  of  landscape  art.  Where 
the  native  wild  shrubs  and  trees  grow  naturally  on  home 
or  school  grounds,  they  should  certainly  be  left,  with  proper 
arrangement  and  care,  of  course.  Such  native  trees  as  the 
maple,  the  linden,  the  ash,  the  elm,  the  poplar,  the  dogwood, 
the  horse-chestnut,  and  many  others,  and  such  shrubs  as  the 
wild  hydrangea,  the  azalea,  the  spice-bush,  the  sumac,  the 
high  bush  cranberry,  the  viburnum,  the  chokecherry,  and  the 
elder,  may  be  successfully  transplanted  from  the  forests  and 
fields  to  the  home  and  school  grounds. 


312 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Boys  and  girls  cooperate.  If  our  boys  and  girls  will  help 
to  plant  and  care  for  trees  and  shrubs,  they  will  learn  to 
respect  and  wivsh  to  preserve  them  as  useful  and  beautiful 
public  property.  Here,  with  the  young  folks,  is  the  proper 
starting  point  for  the  conservation  of  our  trees  and  the 
beauty  of  the  countryside,  for  it  is  they  who  will  have  to 
"pay  the  piper"  after  we  have  had  our  dance. 

Making-  a  picture  in  the  landscape.  It  is  possible  to  make 
such  use  of  trees  and  shrubs  that  a  beautiful  picture  of  the 
home  grounds  may  be  framed  and  enjoyed  by  the  passers-by 
from  the  public  road;  furthermore,  it  is  desirable  to  place 
the  trees  and  shrubs  about  the  home  grounds  so  that  attract- 
ive views  from  the  windows  and  doors  of  the  house  across 
the  landscape  may  be  secured.  In  the  making  of  the  picture, 
the  orchards,  forest  trees,  and  windbreaks  make  excellent 
backgrounds.  Trees  and  shrubs  massed  at  the  border  frame 
the  picture,  and  the  open  greensward  in  front  of  the  house 
makes  an  attractive  foreground.  All  that  is  needed  to  com- 
plete the  picture  in  the  landscape,  in  addition  to  the  use  of 
nature's  plant  material,  are  the  happy  boys  and  girls  of 
the  home  living  in  the  midst  of  it. 

Screening  unsightly  objects.  There  may  be  about  the 
home  either  on  the  owner's  ground  or  on  that  of  a  neighbor 
such  unsightly  objects  as  old  barns,  outbuildings,  washed-out 
banks,  gaudy  signboards,  etc.,  and  these  may  all  be  hidden 
by  the  proper  placing  of  trees  and  shrubs,  or,  if  close  at  hand, 
icovered  by  vines  and  made  attractive. 

Tree  butchery.  In  many  rural  villages  one  sees  such  utter 
disregard  for  the  beauty  of  the  trees  as  is  commonly  known 


THE  HOME  GARDEN  313 

as  "tree  butchery."  Tops  are  taken  off  of  trees;  the  limbs 
are  cut  in  lop-sided  fashion;  long,  unsightly,  ragged  stubs 
are  left  to  die  and  decay;  and  they  are  otherwise  mutilated 
by  commercial  interests,  careless  hands,  and  ignorant  tree 
pruners.  When  people  are  educated  to  appreciate  the  nat- 
ural beauty  of  trees,  they  will  make  provision  through  proper 
police  force  and  intelligent  care  and  management  to  pre- 
serve this  beauty  to  the  landscape. 

Some  practical  planting1  suggestions.  In  the  beautifying 
of  our  home  and  school  grounds  we  must  make  use  of  proper 
methods  in  planting  the  trees  and  shrubs,  in  order  that  they 
may  live  and  grow  and  contribute  to  the  picture  as  we  had 
planned.  All  nursery  stock  or  material  brought  from  the 
woods  should  be  healthy  and  hardy,  with  good  root  system, 
well  preserved. 

In  most  cases  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  liberal  supply  of 
water  after  the  hole  is  half  filled  up,  so  that  the  soil  may  be 
closely  packed  about  the  roots.  Leave  the  surface  of  the 
ground  with  a  loose  mulch  and  keep  the  grass  from  growing 
about  the  tree  or  shrub.  The  label  should  be  removed  from 
the  plant  to  prevent  bark  binding.  After  planting,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  water  thoroughly  every  few  days  than  merely  to 
sprinkle  the  surface  every  day. 

Trees  and  shrubs  will  grow  better  if  the  surface  of  the 
ground  about  them  is  cultivated  during  the  months  of  May 
and  June. 


314  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

NOTEBOOK  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  materials  for  the  landscape  artist's  use? 

2.  Give  the  A,  B,  C  's  of  landscape  gardening. 

3.  What  are  some  common  violations  of  these  rules  of 
landscape  gardening  you  have  seen? 

4.  Why  should  country  home  and  school  grounds  be  well 
planted  ? 

5.  List  the  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  you  know  native  to 
your  section  and  suitable  for  planting  on  home  grounds. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  a  picture  in  the  landscape  ? 

7.  What  tree-butchery  have  you  seen? 

8.  Describe  in  detail  the  proper  method  of  planting  a 
shrub. 

9.  Where  is  the  proper  place  for  flowers  on  the  home 
grounds  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

Map  of  school  grounds.  Pupils  should  draw  a  m?,p  of 
the  school  yard,  designating  the  trees  and  shrubs  already 
present^  and  indicating  where  others  should  be  placed.  Draw 
the  map  to  a  scale.  Represent  trees  and  shrubs  by  little  cir- 
cles numbered  to  correspond  to  a  key  in  the  margin  where 
the  planting  is  named. 

Mapr  of  home  grounds.  Each  pupil  should  draw  a  map  of 
the  home  grounds  and  indicate  the  location  of  buildings, 
walks,  trees,  and  shrubs.  Criticise  the  plan  according  to 
the  A,  B,  C's  of  good  landscape  planting. 

Picture  study.  Let  the  members  of  the  class  be  provided 
with  pictures  of  home  and  school  grounds,  and  criticise  these 
plans  according  as  they  conform  to  good  landscape  princi- 
ples. Pictures  may  be  found  in  nursery  catalogues,  college 
bulletins,  text-books,  and  garden  magazines. 


PART  V 

HOME  PROJECTS 

INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

Everywhere  the  demand  is  being  made  upon  teachers  of 
agriculture  to  make  their  work  practical.  The  ideas  of  prac- 
tical agriculture  are  generally  vague  in  the  minds  of  those 
advocating  it,  but  they  usually  imply  the  idea  of  a  plot  of 
ground  or  a  "model  farm"  at  the  school.  Until  our  present 
scheme  of  school  organization  is  changed,  such  a  plan  is  not 
practical  or  advisable.  It  is  altogether  practical  work  in 
agriculture  to  learn,  even  from  books,  correct  principles  of 
scientific  agriculture.  To  apply  these  principles  in  agricul- 
tural practice  will  strengthen  the  instruction  and  make  the 
knowledge  surer."  It  is  for  the  purpose  of  making  as  prac- 
tical as  possible,  for  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  public  schools, 
some  of  the  principles  of  scientific  agriculture,  and  of  giving 
direct  vocational  value  to  such  work,  that  the  following  home 
projects  are  outlined  in  detail.  The  topics  for  study  relat- 
ing to  the  projects  will  be  found  throughout  the  text. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  course  in  agriculture,  whatever 
text-book  may  be  used  or  course  pursued,  each  student  in  the 
class  should  choose  one  or  more  of  the  projects  and  carry  it 
through  to  the  end  of  the  course,  or  until  the  project  is  well 

315 


316  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

worked  out.  This  should  be  done  in  addition  to  the  regular 
school  work  in  agriculture,  and  credit  for  the  whole  course 
should  not  be  given  until  the  student  has  completed  his 
project  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  teacher. 

A  neat  and  accurate  notebook  record  of  the  project  should 
be  kept  by  the  student.  Full  directions  for  the  field  and 
notebook  work  are  given  with  each  project. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  classify  the  projects  accord- 
ing to  the  length  of  time  required  for  their  completion,  or 
to  rank  them  with  any  credit  value  which  they  may  carry. 
The  teacher  may  credit  the  student  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  project  and  the  character  of  the  work  done. 

Under  the  recently  enacted  Smith-Hughes  Law,  federal 
and  state  aid  is  allowed  to  high  schools  teaching  voca- 
tional agriculture.  One  of  the  requirements  of  a  school 
thus  aided  is  that  each  pupil  shall  carry  on  a  six-months'" 
farm  project  as  a  part  of  his  course  in  agriculture. 

GENERAL  PLAN  OP  PROJECT  RECORD 

Each  student  should  be  provided  with  a  large  sheet  of 

durable  paper,  size  about  12  inches  by  15  inches,  upon  which 

•  to  make  a  chronological  record  of  his  project  according  to  the 

plan  outlined  below.    This  should  be  done  in  addition  to  the 

records  made  in  the  notebooks  as  explained  under  each  project. 

(From  Pricker's  Agricultural  Education  for  Teachers.) 
Instructor's  Record  Student 

Date Address 

Project Project,  extent,  size,  etc 

Grade    


HOME  PROJECTS 


317 


Date  — 
Month, 
Day 

t 

Operation  or 
Observation, 
What,  How, 
Why,  etc. 

•Materials 
and  Tools 
Used- 
Quantity, 
Cost 

Labor 
Time 
Cost 

Results  — 
Immediate, 
Final, 
Production 

Financial  Acct. 

Expense 

Income 

*• 

If  the  project  involves  the  use  of  land,  draw  a  map  of  the 
plot  to  a  scale  on  the  back  of  the  record  sheet. 

HOME  PROJECT  1 
POULTRY  RAISING 

Plans.  Select  at  least  a  dozen  well-bred  hens  of  any  good 
egg-laying  strain  for  this  project. 

Housing.  Build  (or  equip  one  already  built)  a  poultry 
house  according  to  good  poultry  house  standards.  One  would 
not  desire  a  house  smaller  than  8  feet  by  10  feet.  One  hun- 
dred hens  may  be  housed  in  a  building  20  feet  by  20  feet. 
The  essentials  of  a  good  poultry  house  are : 

1.  Freedom  from  dampness. 

2.  Freedom  from  draughts. 


318  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Excellent  ventilation. 

4.  Plenty  of  light;  cheerful  surroundings. 

5.  Convenience. 

Fence  off  a  run  and  keep  the  chickens  of  this  project  sepa- 
rate from  others  that  may  be  about  the  place.  Provide  a  dry 
floor  upon  which  straw  and  chaff  may  be  placed  in  which  the 
hens  may  scratch  for  their  grain.  Have  a  vessel  in  which  to 


FIG.   40.     MEDITERRANEAN  TYPE  OF  HEN 

keep  a  constant  supply  of  clean  fresh  water,  a  hopper  of  sim- 
ple construction  in  which  to  keep  the  dry  mash  feed,  a  box  of 
road  dust  for  wallowing,  and  boxes  for  oyster  shell  and  grit. 
All  these  containers  should  be  placed  high  enough  above  the 
scratching  floor  to  be  free  of  chaff  and  dirt.  Provide  nests 
in  darkened  places,  and  roosting  poles  apart  from  the  feed- 
ing and  other  portions  of  the  house. 

Feeding.  Consult  authorities  on  the  feeding  and  care  of 
poultry,  and  begin  the  project,  giving  every  detail  your  best 
thought,  judgment,  and  effort.  The  following  are  some  good 
rations  for  laying  hens : 


HOME  PROJECTS  319 

1 — Grain  2 — Dry  Mash 

10  Ibs.  Corn  5  Ibs.  Bran 

10  Ibs.  Wheat  5  Ibs.  Shorts 

5  Ibs.  Oats  3^  Ibs.  Meat  Scraps 

Skimmed  milk.  Place  the  grain  in  the  straw  on  the  floor 
and  the  mash  in  the  hopper.  Three  or  four  handfuls  of 
grain  to  a  dozen  hens  in  the  morning,  and  all  they  wajit  at 
night,  would  be  a  good  allowance, — that  is,  providing  you 
keep  the  hopper  full  of  mash  to  which  the  hens  may  go  all 
the  time.  During  the  summer  the  ration  may  be  reduced 
one-half.  Steamed  alfalfa  hay  is  a  good  winter  ration.  All 
table  scraps  should  be  thrown  to  the  chickens.  Potato  and 
apple  parings  should  be  ground  or  chopped  with  other  succu- 
lent food  and  given  with  the  table  scraps.  Other  necessary 
supplements  should  be  supplied  such  as  plenty  of  clean  fresh 
water,  oyster  shell,  grit,  charcoal,  and  green  stuff  whenever 
available. 

Raising1  young  chicks.  If  possible  carry  through  an  incu- 
bator hatch  of  chickens.  The  earlier  the  "broilers"  can  be 
put  on  the  spring  market,  the  more  profitable  the  business. 
The  student  who  undertakes  this  part  of  the  project  should 
send  to  the  State  Experiment  Station  for  special  instructions. 

Allow  a  few  of  your  hens  to  sit  and  hatch  out  broods  of 
young  chicks  for  your  project. 

NOTEBOOK  RECORDS 

1.  Write  a  brief  history  of  the  breed  chosen.    State  why 
the  breed  was  chosen. 

2.  Draw  a  plan   of  your  house,   showing  all  details   of 
construction  and  equipment. 


320  A  YEAR  iN  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Keep  accurate  records  of  all  feeds,  the  amount,  costs, 
etc. 

4.  Keep  record  of  all  eggs  produced,  and  their  value  at 
market  prices.     Let  the  egg-record  sheet  show  daily  yields. 

5.  If  it  is  at  all  possible,  install  trap-nests,  label  your 
hens  by  numbers  placed  on  leg  bands,  and  thus  ketep  tab  of 
each  hen's  egg  record. 

6.  "Write  any  conclusions  or  remarks  you  wish  to  make 
about  your  experience  in  this  project. 

HOME  PROJECT  2 
KEEPING  DAIRY  Cows 

Select  one  or  more  dairy  cows  at  the  home  farm  to  use 
in  this  project.  Make  the  following  preliminary  notes  in 
the  agricultural  notebook: 

1.  T'he  breed  of  the  cow.    A  brief  history  of  the  breed. 

2.  T4ie  pedigree  of  the  cow  if  known ;  some  points  of  spe- 
cial interest  about  the  past  history  or  record  of  the  individual 
cow;   age,  weight,   and   general   condition. 

Scoring.  Use  the  standard  score-card  of  the  state,  and 
carefully  mark  the  points  in  judging  the  dairy  cow  you 
select  for  the  project.  Copy  or  paste  the  score-card  in  your 
notebook. 

Shelter.  Is  the  cow  kept  in  a  stall  or  given  the  freedom 
of  lot  and  pasture? 

1.  The  nature  and  condition  of  the  pasture  and  feed  lot. 

2.  Description  of  the  barn  and  stall  where  the  cow  is 
kept,  fed  and  milked; — size  of  stall,  floor,  feeding  manger, 
lighting,  and  general  sanitary  conditions.    Make  notes  on  all 
these  points.    Suggest  what  improvements  should  be  made. 


HOME  PROJECTS  321 

Feeding1.  What  has  been  the  ration  of  the  cow  prior  to 
the  beginning  of  the  project  ?  "What  was  the  average  amount 
of  feed  given  daily?  Begin  the  record  by  feeding  the  fol- 
lowing ration,  if  practicable : 

(a)  Sixteen  to  20  pounds  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  3  parts 
of  corn  or  oats  to  1  part  bran.     (Feed  1  pound  of  grain  for 
every  3  or  4  pounds  of  milk  per  day.) 

(b)  By  reference  to  feeding  table,  determine  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  this  ration.    Why  is  it  a  good  one?    Note  and  modify 
the  above  ration,  if  practical,  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the 
farm  and  community  as  suggested  by  your  State  Experi- 
ment Station. 

Give  the  cows  plenty  of  pure  fresh  water. 

Keep  a  record  of  the  amount  and  cost  of  the  feed  stuffs 
used  throughout  the  project. 

Dairy  products.  What  was  the  estimated  milk  record. of 
the  cow  when  this  project  began? 

Prepare  a  milk  record  sheet  upon  strong  manila  paper,  or 
secure  one  already  printed  from  a  dairy  man,  and  post  in  a 
convenient  position  near  the  milking  place.  Have  scales  at 
hand  where  the  milk  can  be  weighed  after  each  milking. 
Provide  on  the  sheet  a  place  where  a  daily  record  may  be 
kept  of  the  value  of  the  milk  at  the  prevailing  market  price. 
Copy  this  sheet  by  weekly  summaries  into  your  notebook. 

Make  a  Babcock  test  for  the  butter-fat  content  of  the  milk 
once  a  month.  Take  composite  samples  for  these  tests  from 
both  morning  and  evening  milkings. 

(See  Warren's  "Elements  of  Agriculture, "  p.  345,  for  de- 
tails in  making  this  test.) 


322 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Prepare  a  record  page  in  your  notebook  giving  dates  and 
results  of  tests  made.  Let  this  record  also  show  the  total 
butter-fat  content  from  the  cow  for  the  period  of  the  project. 
Giving  this  butter-fat  the  market  value  of  creamery  butter, 
let  the  record  also  show  the  total  value  of  the  butter-fat 
products. 

Records.  Make  a  statement  showing  total  costs  of  feed- 
ing, total  returns  from  the  products,  and  net  profit  or  loss 
accruing  during  the  project.  The  student's  notebook  should 
show  all  the  details  of  this  project  and  include  accurate 
records  of  all  operations.  Photographs  and  pictures  pasted 
in  the  notebook  would  add  to  its  value. 

WEEKLY  EECORD  SHEET  FOR  EACH  Cow 


Days 

Amount 
of 
Grain 
Fed 

Amount 
of 
Roug-h- 
age  Fed 

Milk 
Yield, 
Ibs. 

Butter- 
Fat, 
Esti- 
mated 
pounds 

Cost 
of 
Feed 

Value 
of 
Products 

Gain 
or 
Loss 

Monday  

Tuesday  

Wednesday.  .  .  . 

Thursday  

Friday  

Saturday  

Sunday  

Tntolc 

HOME  PROJECTS  323 

HOME  PROJECT  3 

PIG  RAISING 

The  Beginning.  For  this  project  the  farmer  should  allow 
the  student  to  take  in  charge  a  sow  and  a  litter  of  newly- 
born  pigs,  or  a  gilt  bred  to  farrow  in  early  spring  or  fall. 

Begin  the  notebook  record  of  this  project  by  stating  how 
many  pigs  are  in  the  litter,  when  they  were  farrowed,  and 
to  what  breed  they  belong. 

Write  a  brief  history  and  description  of  this  breed  of  hog. 

Feeding  the  pigs.  About  the  first  thought  one  has  in  con- 
nection with  raising  pigs  is  that  they  eat. 

The  little  pig  safely  born  and  within  a  few  minutes  suck- 
ing at  a  teat  full  of  milk  has  made  a  good  start  in  life.  It 
is  important  that  every  pig  in  the  litter  get  its  stomach  full 
of  the  first  milk  of  the  sow. 

The  brood  sow  should  be  fed  in  such  a  way  as  to  stimulate 
the  flow  of  milk.  If  the  food  is  too  rich,  consisting  of  skim- 
milk,  oil  meals,  corn,  and  the  like,  the  pigs  are  likely  to 
have  digestive  disorders.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  mother 
is  underfed,  the  pigs  will  also  suffer. 

Feed  the  sow  regularly  on  a  moderately  rich  ration,  such 
as  mashes  made  from  ground  oats,  shorts  and  bran.  Sweet 
milk  added  to  the  above  makes  an  excellent  ration.  In  about 
three  weeks  the  pigs  may  begin  to  nibble  at  their  mother's 
food,  to  bite  at  grass,  and  perhaps  to  try  to  root.  In  one 
corner  of  the  pen  place  a  small  trough  for  the  pigs  and 
fence  it  off  so  that  the  sow  cannot  get  to  it.  At  least  twice 
a  day,  just  as  much  sweet  milk  as  the  pigs  will  clean  up  may 


324  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

be  given  to  them.    Never  leave  any  milk  to  sour  in  the  trough. 

In  a  few  days  a  gruel  of  oats  and  wheat  middlings  may  re- 
place the  milk.  Later,  corn  soaked  for  twenty-four  hours 
may  be  placed  in  the  trough.  Never  feed  more  than  they 
will  clean  up.  Pigs  fed  in  separate  places  in  this  manner 
will  make  much  more  rapid  growth. 

If  pigs  are  free  to  run  on  the  proper  pasture  in  connec- 
tion with  the  above  feeding,  the  weaning  process  will  take 
care  of  itself  and  the  pigs  learn  to  "root  for  themselves." 
"Pigs  in  clover"  are  contented  and  happy,  but  hog  happi- 
ness and  prosperity  may  perhaps  best  be  found  with  pastures 
of  alfalfa,  rape,  and  clovers.  Authorities  say  that  cow-peas 
supply  the  necessary  balance  to  a  corn  ration  for  growing 
pigs.  If  the  father  will  allow  the  boy  to  sow  an  acre  of 
cowpeas  or  soy  beans  in  May,  they  will  have  a  good  growth 
for  the  spring  pigs  by  the  middle  of  July.  Proper  handling 
from  farrowing  to  fattening  time  should  produce  pigs  weigh- 
ing from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds.  Turn 
the  pigs  on  the  cow-peas  or  soy  beans  two  hours  a  day,  grad- 
ually extending  the  period  for  a  week,  after  which  they 
may  remain  in  the  pasture  all  the  time.  The  growing  ration 
fed  before  should  be  gradually  done  away  with,  and  corn 
should  be  supplied  in  connection  with  the  pasture  to  fatten 
them.  One  acre  of  the  cow-peas  or  soy  beans  should  supply 
a  dozen  hogs  during  the  seventy-day  fattening  period,  at  a 
great  saving  of  the  amount  of  corn  ordinarily  required  to 
fatten  hogs,  and  the  hogs  will  have  made  greater  gain  due  to 
a  better  balanced  ration.  Tankage  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to 


HOME  PROJECTS  325 

10  parts  of  water,  given  once  a  day,  is  a  good  supplementary 
feed  for  growing  pigs. 

Sheltering  and  other  care  of  pig's.  If  this  project  is  begun 
in  the  spring,  the  question  of  housing  may  not  be  so  im- 
portant; however,  the  student  should  know  that  hogs  should 
have  shelter  and  that  their  housed  should  be  well-ventilated, 
well-lighted,  well-drained,  and  sanitary.  Hogs  need  shelter 
in  both  summer  and  winter. 

One  individual  hog  house,  constructed  on  runners  so  that 
it  can  be  moved  about,  should  be  built  for  the  sow  and  her 
litter  in  this  project.  The  house  may  be  A-shaped,  eight 
feet  square  and  seven  feet  high,  with  or  without  a  floor. 
(Send  for  the  bulletins  on  Portable  Hog  Houses,  Wisconsin 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Madison;  Illinois  Experi- 
ment Station,  Urbana;  and  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  Ames.) 

There  are  many  pig  ills  and  diseases  likely  to  come  to  the 
swine  herd,  but  it  will  not  be  practicable  to  discuss  them 
or  suggest  any  study  of  them  in  this  project.  Cholera  is  the 
arch  enemy  of  the  hog,  but  fortunately  science  is  coming  to 
the  rescue  with  a  serum  which  is  very  successful  in  render- 
ing hogs  immune  from  the  disease.  If  there  is  cholera  in 
your  neighborhood,  write  to  the  State  Veterinarian  for  sug- 
gestions and  advice.  Consult  with  experienced  farmers  on 
other  problems  connected  with  the  raising  of  your  litter  of 
pigs. 

Records  and  accounts.  At  the  beginning  of  the  project 
the  student  should  prepare  a  record  sheet  in  his  notebook  in 
which  to  tabulate  the  following  records  and  accounts: 


326  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

1.    RECORDS  AND  ACCOUNTS  IN  RAISING  A  LITTER  OF  PIGS 
Name  and  Number  of  Sow. 


Date  of 
Farrowing 

Breed 

Date 
First  Food  In 
Addition  to 
Mother's  Milk 

Kind  of  Pasture, 
Date  Turned  In 

Kind  of 
House  Used 

2. 


Estimated 

Weight 

Each 

Month 


Money  Expended  In 

the  Project. 

For  What? 

Amount.  . 

Estimated  Value  of 
Food  not  Purchased 


Money 

Received 

from  Sale 

of  Hogs 


Notes 


Note — For  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  pig  raising  project  see 
"Pig  Raising,"  by  Nolan  and  Greene,  published  by  Row,  Peterson 
&  Co. 


HOME  PROJECTS  327 

HOME  PROJECT  4 

CORN  GROWING 

Selecting  the  ground.  The  best  time  to  choose  the  plot 
of  ground  upon  which  the  corn  project  is  to  be  carried  out 
is  in  the  fall.  Select  not  less  thali  one  acre  of  good,  deep, 
well-drained,  fertile  loam  soil,  preferably  in  clover  sod. 

Enriching  the  soil  for  permanent  fertility.  If  the  clover 
crop  of  the  previous  summer  has  not  been  cut  and  left  lying 
on  the  ground  to  be  plowed  under,  apply  broadcast,  prefer- 
ably in  the  fall  or  winter,  a  dressing  of  barnyard  manure  at 
the  rate  of  six  or  eight  tons  to  the  acre. 

Most  soils  are  deficient  in  phosphorus.  Apply  in  the  fall 
or  winter  about  two  tons  per  acre  of  fine-ground  rock  phos- 
phate. This  should  always  be  applied  to  soil  containing  an 
abundance  of  active  organic  matter  such  as  manures  or 
clovers,  and  plowed  down  with  the  organic  matter. 

Lime  is  useful  in  aiding  decomposition  of  organic  matter 
and  in  keeping  the  soil  sweet.  Most  soils  should  be  limed 
once  in  four  or  five  years,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  tons 
per  acre  of  ground  limestone.  The  limestone  may  be  put 
on  the  ground  in  the  spring  or  fall  after  it  is  broken  up 
for  corn. 

Preparing  the  seed-bed.  Corn  ground,  in  general,  should 
be  plowed  deep  and  be  well -pulverized.  Seeds  will  not  ger- 
minate evenly  if  the  seed-bed  is  lumpy  and  rough.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  break  corn  ground  in  the  fall,  providing  it  is  not 
a  heavy  clay  soil  and  there  is  no  danger  of  the  soil  washing 
away  during  the  winter.  Never  plow  a  clay  soil  when  it  is 


328  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

wet.  Plowed  land  should  be  thoroughly  disked  and  harrowed 
before  planting. 

Selecting-,  storing,  and  testing  the  seed.  The  only  satis- 
factory method  of  selecting  seed  corn  is  the  one  that  takes 
into  consideration  the  whole  plant.  It  is  necessary  to  select 
seed  corn  from  leafy  stalks  that  are  well  developed,  having 
the  ear  located  just  a  little  below  the  middle  of  the  stalk 
and  supported  on  a  short  shank  which  inclines  the  ear  down- 
ward. This  selection  can  be  made  only  from  standing  stalks 
at  ripening  time.  Desirable  ear  characteristics  are  described 
on  standard  score-cards  and  will  not  be  given  here. 

In  the  great  corn  belt  we  are  likely  to  get  freezing  weather 
soon  after  corn  has  matured,  and  ears  intended  for  seed 
should  fee  protected  from  frost.  Corn  contains  considerable 
moisture,  the  germ  is  a  living  thing,  and  the  vitality  of  the 
corn?  may  be  seriously  injured  if  it  is  allowed  to  freeze.  Corn 
should  be  stored  in  a  dry  room,  out  of  reach  of  mice  and 
rats,  and  where  dampness  or  freezing  will  not  occur. 

It  is  a  wise  plan  to  test  seed  corn  for  vitality,  or  ability 
to  grow,  early  in  the  spring  before  it  is  time  to  plant.  One 
poor  ear  of  corn  spoils  about  one-fifteenth  of  an  acre  of  the 
corn  field.  One  method  of  testing  seed  corn  is  fully  explained 
in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  409,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Write  for  this  at  Washington,  D.  C.  Methods  are 
also  given  in  the  chapter  on  corn  in  this  book. 

Planting1.  Corn  may  be  planted  from  the  first  to  the  mid- 
dle of  May,  or  even  later.  Use  the  best  seed  available. 

From  one  and  one-half  to  three  inches  is  the  depth  to  plant 
corn,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  soil. 


HOME  PROJECTS  329 

The  hills  should  be  three  feet  six  inches  apart  each  way. 
Plant  three  or  four  kernels  for  each  hill,  if  the  check-row 
method  is  used. 

As  an  additional  feature  to  this  project,  the  student  may 
plant  an  ear-to-row  plot.  Select  from  seven  to  ten  good  ears 
of  corn  and  plant  one  row  from  each  ear.  Number  each  row 
by  a  stake  driven  in  the  ground  at  the  end  of  the  row.  At 
the  end  of  the  season  report  which  rows  yielded  most,  and 
save  the  seed  from  these  rows  for  next  year. 

Cultivation.  Proper  cultivation  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant operations  in  growing  corn.  Weeds  are  removed  and 
the  surface  mulch  is  maintained  in  proper  cultivation. 

Early  rolling  and  harrowing  before  or  soon  after  the  corn 
comes  up  is  a  good  practice,  facilitating  the  early  control  of 
the  weeds. 

The  soil  should  be  cultivated  as  often  as  is  necessary  ta 
maintain  a  loose*  shallow  mulch  of  soil  over  the  surface  of 
the  corn  field.  Never  allow  the  surface  to  become  baked  or 
hard  before  "laying  by."  Cultivate  after  a  rain  as  soon  as 
it  is  dry  enough  to  work.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  culti- 
vate too  deep.  If  the  roots  of  corn  are  injured,  the  yield  is 
reduced.  Five  or  six  cultivations  during  the  season  would 
be  the  minimum  number  to  insure  a  good  crop. 

Cross  pollinating1.  Before  kernels  will  form  in  the  ear, 
pollen  from  the  tassel  must  fall  on  the  silk  of  the  ear.  This  is 
called  pollination.  A  stronger  strain  of  corn  is  developed 
when  the  pollen  fertilizes  an  ear  not  of  the  same  but  of 
another  stalk.  If  every  other  row  in  the  plot  from  which 
seed  is  to  be  selected  is  detasseled  just  as  soon  as  the  tas- 


330  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

sels  form,  there  will  be  plenty  of  pollen  to  fertilize  all  the 
corn,  and  the  ears  on  the  detasseled  plants  will  necessarily 
be  cross  pollinated  and  are  likely  to  be  better  developed 
than  the  ears  on  the  stalks  not  detasseled.  The  student 
should  do  this  work,  and  select  his  seed  corn  from  these 
detasseled  rows. 

Record  of  the  project.    Prepare  a  page  in  the  agricultural 
notebook  to  record  the  work  on  this  project  as  follows: 

1.  Area  of  corn  plot. 

2.  Character  of  soil. 

3.  What  crops  were  grown  on  the  land  the  three  preced- 
ing seasons? 

4.  What  amount  of  manure,  phosphorus,  and  limestone 
was  applied?    When  applied? 

5.  When  and  how  deep  was  the  plat  plowed? 

6.  Condition  of  land  at  plowing. 

7.  How  many  times  harrowed? 

8.  Date  of  planting.    Was  seed  tested? 

9.  Variety  of  corn  used. 

10.  Distance  apart  of  planting. 

11.  Number  of  stalks  per  hill. 

12.  How  plot  was  cultivated. 

13.  Depth  of  cultivation. 

14.  How  many  times  cultivated. 

15.  How  many  pounds  of  ear. 

16.  Number  of  pounds  of  stover. 

17.  Yield  in  bushels. 

18.  Rent  of  land  at  $5  per  acre. 

19.  Cost  of  seed. 


HOME  PROJECTS  331 

20.  Cost  of  fertilizers. 

21.  Cost  of  plowing,  planting,  cultivating,  harvesting,  etc. 
Figure  your  own  time  25  cents  an  hour  and  the  time  of  the 
horse  20  cents  an  hour. 

22.  Total  value  of  crop,  stover,  and  corn. 

23.  Net  profit  or  loss  of  the  project. 

24.  What  should  be  the  next  crop  on  your  plot? 

For  fuller  details  on  this  subject,  see  "Corn  Growing,"  by  Nolan 
and  Greene,  published  by  Row,  Peterson  &  Co. 

HOME  PROJECT  5 

SOME  INSECT  STUDIES* 

Provide  yourself  with  an  insect  net,  cyanide  bottle,  collect- 
ing cans,  lens,  and  mounting  boxes  or  cases. 

To  collect  and  preserve  insects  a  cyanide  bottle  is  needed. 
Get  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  and  a  good  cork  to  fit  it  tightly. 
Put  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  an  ounce  of  potassium  cyan- 
ide broken  into. lumps  about  the  size  of  lima  beans;  add 
enough  saw-dust  to  cover  the  lumps  and  pour  in  plaster  of 
Paris,  mixed  to  a  consistency  of  thick  cream,  covering  the 
whole  with  a  layer  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  In  a 
few  minutes  the  plaster  will  harden.  Drop  an  insect  to  be 
killed  into  the  bottle  and  cork  immediately.  The  fumes  of 
the  cyanide  coming  up  through  the  plaster  kill  the  insect. 
(Avoid  breathing  tliese  fumes,  and  keep  the  bottle  corked.) 
Label  the  bottle  and  keep  it  away  from  children. 


*See  Hodges'  "Nature-Study  and  Life." 


332 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Insect  mounting  cases  may  be  purchased  from  any  scien- 
tific supply  company.  Cigar  boxes  make  very  good  cases 
for  mounting  and  preserving  insects. 

Equip  an  insect  breeding  cage  to  use  in  following  out  life 
histories. 

Try  to  get  the-  eggs  or  pupa  of  some  insect  hibernating  in 
these  stages  during  the  winter  to  place  in  the  breeding  cage 
in  order  to  begin  life  history  studies.  Make  notes  as  tabu- 
lated below : 


Name  of 
Insect 

Stage  Placed 
in  Cage 

Date  of 
Starting 

Date  of 
Next  Stage 
Appearing 

Habits   and   Time 
in  Following 

Stages 

Make  collections  and  mount  in  some  permanent  form,  such 
as  the  Riker  cases  types  of  insects  from  each  of  the  seven 
orders  of  insects. 

If  possible,  secure  and  equip  an  observation  beehive. 

Keep  notebook  record  of  all  studies. 


HOME  PROJECT  6 
GROWING  ALFALFA 

The  ground.  Select  a  fertile,  well  drained  plot  of  ground, 
from  one-tenth  to  an  acre  in  size,  to  be  used  for  the  growing 
of  alfalfa.  Some  steps  may  be  taken  toward  the  preparation 


HOME  PROJECTS  333 

of  the  ground  during  the  fall  or  winter  preceding  the  sowing 
of  the  seed. 

Good  drainage  is  essential  to  alfalfa  culture,  and  this  should 
be  the  first  item  to  receive  attention  in  the  preparation  of 
the  ground. 

Unless  the  soil  is  naturally  ricK  in  limestone  it  is  well  to 
put  at  least  a  ton  of  ground  limestone  per  acre  on  the  land  to 
be  sowed  to-  alfalfa.  This  may  be  applied  at  any  time. 

Since  alfalfa  is  a  heavy  "feeder"  upon  phosphorus,  it  is 
advisable  to  apply  about  a  ton  per  acre  of  finely-ground 
rock  phosphate  to  the  land  before  plowing  the  ground  in  the 
fall  or  spring.  Stable  manure  or  a  green  cover  crop  should 
be  incorporated  with  the  rock  phosphate. 

The  ground  should  be  plowed  deeply  in  the  fall  or  as  -early 
in  the  spring  as  conditions  will  permit  and  placed  in  "onion 
bed"  tilth.  Two  methods  of  procedure  may  here  be  followed : 

First  plan.  Sow  the  alfalfa  seed,  about  twelve  or  fifteen 
pounds  per  acre,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  prepared,  with  a 
nurse  crop  of  barley,  about  one  bushel  per  acre,  or  with  the 
"sixty-day"  variety  of  oats.  Before  the  barley  or  oats  ma- 
ture in  the  summer  they  should  be  cut  as  a  hay  crop,  leaving 
the  field  to  alfalfa. 

Second  plan.  Cultivate  the  ground  all  spring  and  early 
summer  as  you  would  a  corn  crop  to  conserve  the  moisture 
and  to  keep  down  weeds.  During  the  last  week  of  July  or 
the  first  week  in  August  sow  the  alfalfa  seed. 

Sowing  seed  and  inoculating  soil.  In  either  method  as 
mentioned  above,  the  ground  should  be  inoculated  with  alfalfa 
bacteria  just  before  sowing  the  seed. 


334  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Procure  about  200  pounds  of  the  soil  upon  which  alfalfa 
or  wild  sweet  clover  has  grown  and  apply  to  each  acre  just 
before  seeding.  Harrow  it  in  at  once.  A  cloudy  day  is 
preferable  for  this  work,  since  sunlight  may  kill  many  of 
the  bacteria  before  they  get  into  the  soil. 

Use  good,  clean,  tested  alfalfa  seed,  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
pounds  per  acre.  On  a  small  plot  the  seed  may  be  sown 
broadcast  and  carefully  harrowed  in. 

Cutting  alfalfa  hay.  The  crop  is  harvested  the  second 
summer  after  planting  as  a  most  valuable  hay.  Three,  four, 
or  five  cuttings  may  be  obtained  during  a  season.  The  hay 
should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  shoots  of  the  new  growth  begin 
to  appear  at  the  crown  of  the  old  growth. 

Notebooks  records.  The  student  should  keep  a  notebook 
record  of  every  step  in  the  operation,  recording  the  cost  of 
preparation  of  the  ground,  the  seed,  etc.,  and  if  the  project 
continues  two  summers  the  returns  from  the  hay  crop  should 
be  added  to  the  record. 

HOME  PROJECT  7 

SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  ALFALFA 

Purpose.  This  project  contemplates  the  handling  of  one 
acre  of  land  in  four  plots.  Two  of  these  plots  are  untreated, 
and  farm  manure,  limestone,  and  phosphorus  are  applied  to 
the  other  two.  Two  plots,  one  treated  and  one  untreated,  are 
sown  to  alfalfa,  and  the  other  two  put  into  a  rotation,  only 
one  crop  of  the  rotation  appearing  at  a  time.  Wheat,  corn, 
oats,  and  clover  is  the  rotation  suggested.  This  may  be 
varied  to  suit  varying  conditions.  It  is  suggested  that  the 


HOME  PROJECTS  335 

work  be  started  with  corn.  Thus  for  the  first  year  of  work 
there  will  be  two  alfalfa  plots  and  two  corn  plots.  When  the 
rotation  is  completed  in  two  plots  it  is  moved  to  the  other 
plots,  and  the  plots  used  for  the  rotation  are  seeded  with 
alfalfa.  The  project  is  adapted  for  use  in  almost  any  section 
where  limestone  and  phosphate  may  be  procured.  Necessarily 
this  project  requires  several  years  of  time  and  a  continuous 
policy  of  management. 

THE  PLAN 

1.  Seeding  alfalfa.    The  alfalfa  may  be  sown  in  the  spring 
with  a  nurse  crop  of  oats  or  barley,  or  the  ground  may  be 
plowed  and  cultivated  until  June,  when  the  alfalfa  may  be 
sown.    Another  plan  is  to  sow  winter  rye  in  the  spring  as  a 
nurse  crop.    This  ceases  to  grow  after  a  time  and  the  alfalfa 
gets  ahead  of  it.    Another  advantage  of  this  latter  plan  is  the 
fact  that  if  the  first  stand  is  lost,  the  alfalfa  and  nurse  crop 
may  be  plowed  up  in  May  and  the  alfalfa  reseeded  alone  in 
June. 

2.  Preparation  and  treatment.  Farm  manure  and  steamed 
bone-meal  or  rock  phosphate  are  applied  before  plowing, 
disked  in,  and  plowed  under. 

3.  Limestone.    This  should  be  applied  after  plowing,  and 
worked  into  the  surface  soil  by  disking  and  harrowing  before 
seeding  the  alfalfa  or  planting  the  corn. 

4.  Amounts  to  apply. 

Farm  Manure 10  tons  per  acre 

Steamed  Bone-meal 1  ton    per  acre  or 

Rock  Phosphate 2  tons  per  acre 

Limestone  . .  5  tons  per  acre 


336 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


5.  Inoculation.     The  glue  method  of  inoculation  is  ad- 
vised.   Both  alfalfa  plots  are  to  be  inoculated. 

6.  The  plots.    The  plots  are  four  in  number,  arranged  as 
below : 


1 

2x8  rods 

V2   rod 

3 

2x8  rods 

2 

2x8  rods 

%   rod 

4 

2x8  rods 

The  treatment  of  each  plot  is  as  follows  (use  one-tenth  the 
amount  suggested  above  on  each  plot)  : 

1.  Nothing. 

2.  Manure,  limestone,  and  phosphorus. 

3.  Nothing. 

4.  Manure,  limestone,  and  phosphorus. 

The  division  strips  are  for  protection,  turning  with  machin- 
ery, etc. 

The  acre  selected  should  be  so  far  as  possible  representa- 
tive of  the  farm.  It  should  be  free  from  draws  or  hillsides, 
and  should  not  contain  old  feed  lots  or  stack  bottoms  where 
soil  is  unusually  fertile. 

7.  Farming'  operations.  No  directions  are  given  for 
farming  operations ;  the  student  is  to  be  governed  by  the  best 
farming  practice  in  his  neighborhood  or  on  his  farm.  The 


HOME  PROJECTS  337 

crops  should  be  seeded,  cultivated,  and  harvested  according 
to  best  scientific  practices. 

8.  Weighing.    It  is  of  great  benefit  to  have  scales  availa- 
ble for  use  on  the  farm.     Bone-meal  may  be  purchased  in 
200-pound  bags,  and  manure  and  limestone  may  be  estimated 
by  the  wagon  load  or  fraction  thereof.     This  should  only  be 
done  when  it  is  impossible,  without  inconvenience,  to  gain 
access  to  scales. 

9.  Sign  boards.    For  the  benefit  of  visitors  it  is  well  to 
have  small  sign  boards  for  the  plots  to  indicate  the  treatment. 
Use  these  abbreviations: 

0 — No  treatment. 

MLP — Manures,  limestone,  and  phosphate. 

Still  other  sign  boards  might  be  made  on  which  could  be 
tacked  cardboard  bearing  the  yields  of  crops  the  previous 
year. 

10.  Reports  and  general  information. 

Name ." Age 

Location — County...   Township...   Range...    Section...   Quarter... 

Topography  of  land — Rolling,  level. 

Soil  Type: 
Surface — 
Subsoil — 

Drainage — Natural,  open  ditches,  or  tile  drains. 

Location  of  Plot  on  Farm — 

Is  it  representative  of  the  entire  farm? 

(Try  to  avoid  abnormal  spots  which  are  not  representative,  such 

as  stock  bottoms,  hog  lots,  feed  plots.) 

Previous  History  of  Plot — State  what  crops  have  been  grown,  rota- 
tions practiced,  cornstalks  burned  or  plowed  under,  manure  or 
fertilizers  applied. 


338  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Is  your  land  weedy? 

State  when  you  plowed  the  ground  and  applied  the  limestone,  ma- 
nure, and  phosphorus. 

Method  of  inoculation  used?    When  alfalfa  was  sown? 
What  is  rotation  you  intend  to  follow  on  plots  2  and  4? 
Difficulties. 

Directions  for  keeping  records.  A  book  about  five  by 
seven  inches,  ruled  in  squares,  is  recommended  for  this  pur- 
pose, although  any  book  may  be  used.  On  the  third  page 
of  the  book  make  a  drawing  of  your  acre  showing  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  plots,  and  number  them  as  in  the  diagram  under 
paragraph  6. 

On  page  5  of  your  notebook  rule  up  columns  as  indicated 
below,  and  record  the  various  amounts  applied  to  each  plot. 
Thus: 

Rock  phosphate 
Plot  Manure  Limestone  or  bone-meal  Crop 


Page  7  of  your  book  should  contain  a  record  of  the  hay, 
grain,  and  straw  cut  from  each  plot.  Record  each  cutting 
separately,  if  possible.  A  sample  form  is  here  given: 


HOME  PROJECTS 


339 


fPounds 

Tons 

Pounds 

Tons 

Pounds 

*Bushels 

straw, 

straw, 

Plot. 

hay  per 

hay 

grain 

grain 

stover, 

stover, 

plot. 

per 

per  plot. 

per  acre. 

or  fodder 

or  fodder. 

acre. 

per  plot. 

per  acre. 

1 

*- 

2 

3 

4 

*State  pounds  per  bushel  used. 

f  If  you  are  unable  to  get  weights,  omit  these  columns. 

On  pages  9,  10,  and  11  keep  an  account  of  the  labor  ex- 
pended on  your  acre.  It  should  be  given  in  boy-hours,  man- 
hours,  and  horse-hours.  By  one  boy-hour  is  meant  the  labor 
performed  by  a  boy  (10  to  18)  working  for  one  hour.  A 
team  of  horses  working  for  one  hour  performs  two  horse- 
hours  of  labor.  A  specimen  page  is  here  given : 


Date. 

Operation. 

Boy-hours. 

Man-hours. 

Horse-hours. 

July  10 

Raking  hay 

2 

4 

340 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Hours  are  to  be  added  up  at  the  close  of  the  season. 

On  pages  2,  4,  and  6  of  your  notebook  you  should  keep  a 
diary  of  your  operations,  giving  such  information  as  dates 
of  plowing,  harrowing,  and  seeding,  conditions  of  weather, 
names  and  comments  of  visitors,  appearance  of  alfalfa  and 
other  crops  from  time  to  time. 

On  pages  12  and  13  a  financial  statement  for  the  year 
should  be  made  out.  The  following  form  should  be  followed : 

Page  12 
Dr. 

Rent  of  land 

Cost  of  seed bushel      @ 

Cost  of  manure 5       tons  @  $2.50     

Cost  of  limestone 2%  tons  @ 

Cost  of  bone-meal %  ton    @ 

Labor  boy-hours   @      .25     

man-hours    @      .30     

horse-hours    @      .20     


Total 


Page  13 


Cr. 

Value  of  rotation  crop bushels 

roats 
Value  of  nurse  crop bushels  J  barley 


Value  of  alfalfa  hay tons 


[rye 


Plots 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Value  of  Crops  

Cost  of  Crops  

HOME  PROJECTS 


341 


Value  of  Crops 

Cost   of   Crops 

Treated  Plots 

Untreated  Plots 

Value  of  Increase  

Cost  of  Increase  

HOME   PROJECT   8 

VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Location,  size,  and  plan  for  the  garden.  For  this  project 
the  student  may  choose  an  area  fof  his  garden  apart  from 
the  family  garden,  or  he  may  take  over  the  home  garden  and 
manage  it  as  directed  herein.  No  definite  size  can  be  required 
for  the  garden  in  this  work,  but  it  should  be  at  least  32  feet 
by  32  feet. 

Make  a  plan  of  your  garden  in  your  agricultural  notebook. 
Draw  it  to  a  scale,  about  one-eighth  inch  to  the  foot. 

SUGGESTIVE  GARDEN  PLAN 
Sweet  Potatoes 


Melons 


Cucumbers 


Sweet  Corn  and  Beans 


Sweet  Corn  and  Beans 


342  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Tomatoes 

Early  Cabbage  Late  Cabbage 

Bunch  Beans 

Peas 

Beets  Turnips 

Lettuce  Spinach 

Onion  Sets  Radishes 


If  your  garden  site  is  of  a  different  size  and  shape  than 
the  above,  follow  a  similar  arrangement  of  planting,  giving 
more  or  less  space  to  each  vegetable  as  the  tastes  of  the  family 
require. 

Draw  the  plan  of  your  garden  as  you  plant  it. 

Preparation  of  ground.  The  ground  should  be  cleared  of 
all  coarse  refuse  from  the  preceding  crops,  heavily  manured, 
and  deeply  plowed  in  the  fall.  Forty  tons  of  manure  to  an 
acre  is  not  too  much  to  apply  if  maximum  crops  of  vegetables 
are  to  be  grown.  If  the  plowing  is  deferred  until  spring, 
fine,  well-rotted  manure  should  be  used.  If  the  soil  is  a  stiff 
clay,  it  may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of  sand. 

Apply  strips  of  blue  litmus  paper  to  moistened  lumps  of 
the  garden  soil.  If  the  paper  turns  pink  or  red,  the  soil  is 
sour  and  needs  lime.  Apply  from  2,000  to  4,000  pounds  per 
acre  of  air-slaked  lime.  Ground  limestone  may  be  used  if 
available. 


HOME  PROJECTS  343 


After  the  ground  is  plowed,  it  should  be  harrowed  and 
reharrowed  until  the  soil  is  crumbled  into  as  fine  a  seed-bed 
as  it  is  possible  to  make.  Sow  broadcast  over  the  ground 
bone-meal  at  the  rate  of  300  pounds  per  acre. 

Mark  off  the  rows  according  to  the  plan  of  seeding  as 
shown  on  your  map,  and  prepare  to  plant  the  seed. 

Selecting  and  planting  the  seed.  For  a  small  garden, 
seeds  may  be  purchased  at  the  local  stores.  Be  sure  that 
the  seeds  are  fresh. 

Much  depends  upon  the  variety  of  seed  as  to  the  value  of 
the  garden  product.  The  following  varieties  are  recom- 
mended : 

Beans.    Stringless  Green  Pod,  Henderson's  Bush  Lima,  Lazy  Wife's 

Pole  Bean  for  the  corn. 
Beets.    Crosby's  Egyptian. 
Cabbage.    Jersey  Wakefield,  Savoy. 
Sweet  Corn.    Golden  Bantam,  White  Cob  Cory,  Stowell's  Evergreen, 

Country  Gentleman. 
Cucumber.    Emerald,  White  Spine. 
Lettuce.    Hanson,  May  King,  Morse. 
Muskmelon.    Netted  Gem,  Rocky  Ford. 
Onion.    Southport  Yellow  Globe,  Prize  Taker. 
Peas.    Alaska,  American  Wonder,  Gradus. 
Radish.    Earliest  White,  Scarlet  Button. 
Spinach.    Long  Standing,  Victoria. 
Sweet  Potato.    Naiisemond. 
Turnip.    Purple  Top  Strap  Leaf. 
Tomato.    Chalk's  Early  Jewel,  Ponderosa,  Stone. 

See  planting  list  given  in  the  chapter  on  Gardening,  page 
292. 

The  time  and  methods  of  planting  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


344 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Seeds. 

Time. 

Distance 
from 
preceding 
row. 

Distance 
apart 
in  row. 

Depth  of 
planting. 

Beans    

After  frost 

2ft 

3-4  in 

2  in 

Beets     ... 

dangers 
Early 

18  in 

3     in 

1  in 

Cabbage    

Early 

3ft. 

2     ft 

Transplant 

Sweet  Corn  
Cucumber  

Early 
After  frost 

3ft. 
4ft. 

2|  ft. 
4     ft 

2  in. 
\  in   6-8  seeds 

Lettuce 

Early 

1ft 

i  in 

I  in 

Melons  

After  frost 

4ft 

4     ft 

1  in   6-8  seeds 

Onion  Sets  

Early 

1  ft. 

3     in 

2  in 

Peas 

Early 

2  ft 

1     in 

2  in 

Radish  

Early 

1ft 

1-2  in 

1-2  in 

Spinach. 

Early 

1  ft 

1-2  in 

1-2  in 

Sweet  Potato  .  .  . 
Turnip  

After  frost 
Early  and 

3  to  4  ft. 

2  ft 

12-16  in. 
3-4  in 

Transplant  on 
ridge 
1-2  in 

Tomato  

late 
After  frost 

4ft 

3  ft  4  in 

Transplant 

Firm  the  earth  well  over  all  seeds  planted. 

Students  doing  the  vegetable  garden  work  may  be  able  to 
procure  their  transplants  of  cabbage,  tomatoes,  and  sweet 
potatoes  from  those  having  the  project  with  tomatoes  and 
the  hotbeds. 

It  would  be  well  to  sow  seeds  of  some  annual  flowers  about 
the  borders  of  the  garden,  such  as  cosmos,  dwarf  sunflowers, 
etc. 

Care  and  cultivation  of  the  garden.  The  first  attention  to 
be  given  the  garden  after  seeding  will  be  to  keep  down  the 


HOME  PROJECTS  345 

weeds.  It  may  be  necessary  to  pull  many  weeds  by  hand, 
but  whether  by  hand  or  hoe,  the  weeds  must  go. 

A  loose,  shallow  surface  soil  mulch  should  be  maintained 
at  all  times.  As  soon  after  a  rain  as  the  ground  is  friable 
the  surface  should  be  broken  and  the  mulch  provided  to  pre- 
vent excessive  evaporation.  Every  few  days,  whether  it  rains 
or  not,  the  ground  should  be  stirred  and  the  growth  of  weeds 
checked.  The  best  tool  for  this  purpose  is  a  wheel  hoe.  The 
Planet  Junior  wheel  hoe  is  an  excellent  implement  for  every 
garden  of  the  size  recommended  in  this  project.  It  will  always 
be  necessary  for  the  best  results,  however,  to  use  the  common 
hand  hoe  in  addition  to  the  wheel  hoe  to  put  on  the  finishing 
touches. 

Where  some  of  the  plants  are  crowding  each  other  too 
much  it  may  be  necessary  to  thin  them. 

Some  of  the  plants  of  the  garden  will  need  special  handling 
as  the  season  advances.  Tomatoes  should  be  tied  up  to  stakes ; 
beans,  if  of  the  pole  variety,  will  need  staking. 

Combating  pests  will  be  an  early  problem. 

1.  The  striped  melon  beetle  will  attack  the  cucumbers 
and  melons  as  soon  as  they  appear.    If  there  are  only  a  few 
hills,  it  is  practical  to  protect  them  by  covering  with  small 
screen-covered  bottomless  boxes.    Tobacco  dust,  lime,  etc.,  are 
repellents  often  successfully  used. 

2.  Large  insects,  such  as  tomato  worms,  squash  bugs,  and 
various  caterpillars  may  be  picked  off  by  hand  and  killed. 

3.  For  small  leaf-eating  insects,  such  as  cabbage  worm, 
potato  bug,  etc.,  a  solution  of  lead  arsenate    (about  a  tea- 
spoonful  to  a  gallon  of  water)   sprayed  upon  the  plants  is 


346 


A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 


effective.    An  atomizer  or  sprinkler  may  be  used  in  a  small 
garden. 

4.  Plant  lice  may  be  combated  with  Tobacco  Concoction, 
or  "  Black  Leaf  40." 

5.  Ordinary  blights  and  rots  of  the  garden  may  be  suc- 
cessfully combated  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

To  utilize  the  garden  intensively,  such  crops  as  peas,  rad- 
ishes, lettuce,  turnips,  etc.,  maturing  early,  should  be  removed 
and  followed  by  a  succession  crop  of  the  same  or  another 
vegetable. 

Keeping  garden  accounts  and  records.  Prepare  a  page  in 
the  notebook  and  keep  records  as  called  for  in  the  following 
table: 


Date  of 
planting. 

Varieties. 

Up— 
Date. 

Blooming  — 
Date. 

Used- 
Date. 

Continued 
bearing. 

Prepare  an  account  sheet  in  your  notebook  as  follows,  and 
keep  record  of  expenses  and  receipts: 


HOME  PROJECTS 


347 


Date. 

Paid  out. 

Date. 

Received. 

April   1 

For  fertilizer  ....$1.20 

April  10 

For  seeds  75 

Mayl 

For  dozen  radishes.$0.15 

HOME  PROJECT  9 
TOMATO  RAISING 

Early  in  the  spring,  or  perhaps  in  February,  send  to  a 
good  seed  house  for  tomato  seeds.  Get  at  least  two  varieties — 
Chalk's  Early  Jewel,  Livingston's  Globe,  Matchless,  Stone, 
Earliana,  or  Ponderosa. 

Making  the  hotbed.  Select  a  place  at  the  south  side  of 
some  building  for  the  hotbed.  Dig  an  oblong  space,  three 
feet  wide,  six  feet  long,  and  eighteen  inches  deep.  Make  a 
wall  of  posts  and  boards  fitting  close  to  the  side  of  the  beds, 
or,  perhaps  better,  make  a  bottomless  box  to  fit  into  the  bed. 
Make  the  back  wall  three  feet  high  and  eighteen  inches  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  A  two-by-four  set  in  from  back 
to  front  across  the  middle  will  make  a  support  for  the  win- 
dow sash  which  is  to  cover  the  bed. 

The  heat  for  the  hotbed  is  commonly  supplied  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  horse  manure.  The  manure  from  livery  stables 
is  usually  best.  Perhaps  as  much  as  half  of  the  whole  mate- 


348  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

rial  should  be  of  litter  or  straw  that  has  been  used  for  bed- 
ding. To  allow  fermentation  to  take  place,  the  manure  should 
be  piled  for  several  days  before  using.  In  cold  weather,  wet- 
ting the  pile  with  hot  water  will  has-ten  fermentation.  In 
order  to  make  fermentation  uniform,  the  pile  should  be  turned 
occasionally  and  the  hard  lumps  broken  up.  When  the  pile 
is  steaming  uniformly  throughout  it  is  placed  in  the  hotbed. 
Fill  in  about  nine  inches  of  the  manure  and  tramp  down 
firmly;  then  add  a  second  nine  inches  and  firm  as  before. 
Now  spread  three  or  four  inches  of  rich  garden  loam  over 
the  manure  and  the  bed  is  ready  for  t»he  seed. 

Planting  the  seed  and  caring  far  the  seedlings.  Mark  off 
the  seed-bed  in  rows  across  the  short  way,  about  four  inches 
apart.  Drop  the  seed  in  the  furrows  about  an  inch  apart, 
cover  with  about  a  half  inch  of  soil,  and  firm  it  well  over 
the  seed.  Other  vegetables,  such  as  cabbage,  eggplant,  sweet 
potato,  etc.,  may  be  planted  in  the  hotbed.  Cover  the  hotbed 
with  the  window  sash.  See  garden  project  for  varieties. 

The  soil  should  be  watered  every  few  days,  and  on  bright, 
warm  days  the  sash  should  be  raised  to  admit  fresh  air  to 
the  seedlings. 

Preparation,  of  ground  in  the  garden.  The  plot  of  ground 
for  the  tomatoes  may  be  plowed  either  in  the  fall  or  the 
spring.  It  would  be  well,  unless  the  ground  is  especially 
rich,  to  turn  under  a  layer  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  on 
the  tomato  plot. 

Harrow  down  the  surface  well  and  lay  it  off  in  rows  four 
feet  apart.  A  mixture  of  steamed  bone,  dried  blood,  and 
potassium  sulphate  is  a  good  fertilizer.  A  shovelful  of  well- 


HOME  PROJECTS  349 

rotted  manure  applied  in  each  hill  and  covered  with  earth 
will  promote  growth. 

Transplanting-  the  seedlings  into  the  g-arden.  After  all 
danger  of  frost  is  over,  go  over  the  tomato  plot  again,  pre- 
paring a  clean,  loose  surface,  and  renewing  the  rows  where 
the  plants  are  to  be  set. 

Select  the  healthiest,  stockiest  tomato  plants  from  the  hot- 
bed to  transplant.  Do  this  work  in  the  evening  to  prevent 
excessive  wilting.  Have  a  plant  trowel  to  dig  up  the  seed- 
lings with  as  much  of  the  root-system  as  possible.  The  trowel 
may  also  be  used  to  dig  out  the  hole  in  which  to  set  the  young 
plants  in  the  rows  in  the  garden. 

Setting  the  tomato  plants.  Place  the  varieties  together. 
Using  the  trowel,  prepare  a  place  for  each  plant  a  little 
deeper  than  it  grew  in  the  hotbed.  The  old  garden  practice 
of  pouring  about  a  half-pint  of  water  about  the  roots  of  the 
seedling,  just  before  the  last  bit  of  soil  is  placed  about  the 
plant,  is  a  very  good  plan,  especially  if  the  soil  is  a  little  dry. 
Firm  the  soil  well  about  the  roots  and  have  a  loose  mulch 
over  the  surface  "about  the  tomato  plant.  Set  the  plants 
about  three  and  a  half  feet  apart  in  the  row. 

Tomato  plants  may  be  sold  if  a  market  is  found. 

Cultivating,  pruning,  and  staking.  Employ  two  methods 
of  soil  culture  on  your  plot  after  you  have  cultivated  the 
ground  and  kept  down  the  weeds  for  a  few  weeks.  On  a  part 
of  your  plot  cover  all  the  ground  with  a  mulch  of  straw; 
on  the  rest  continue  cultivation  to  keep  down  weeds,  and  to 
provide  a  loose  soil  mulch  at  all  times. 


350    '  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

On  the  straw  plot  allow  the  tomatoes  to  fall  down  and  grow 
at  will  without  further  care  in  pruning  or  staking. 

On  the  cultivated  plot,  after  the  tomato  plants  begin  to 
send  out  branches  from  the  angles  of  the  leaves,  drive  a  stake 
about  five  feet  long,  containing  two  or  three  cross-arms,  by 
each  plant,  and  tie  the  plant  to  this  stake  as  it  grows,  to 
keep  it  off  the  ground.  Select  a  few  plants  to  prune. 
Throughout  the  summer,  watch  the  plants  and  pinch  off  all 
side  branches,  leaving  only  the  central  olie  to  grow  and  be 
tied  to  the  stake. 

On  a  few  plants  hand  methods  of  fighting  insects  may  be 
employed.  Cut-worms  may  be  prevented  by  wrapping  a  piece 
of  heavy  paper  around  the  stem  of  each  plant  at  the  time 
of  transplanting.  Tomato  worms  may  be  picked  off  and 
crushed  under  foot.  If  leaf  blight  or  tomato  rot  appears,  the 
plants  should  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

The  last  work  of  the  project  would  consist  in  keeping  a 
record  of  the  amount  of  tomatoes  harvested  from  the  plot. 
If  the  tomatoes  are  sold,  they  should  be  carefully  graded  and 
sold  in  baskets,  twelve  in  each. 

Notebook  records.  The  student  should  keep  a  diary  rec- 
ord of  every  operation  performed  in  connection  with  this 
project. 

HOME  PROJECT  10 
POTATO  RAISING 

Where  to  plant.  Select  a  deep,  rich,  sandy  loam  soil,  if 
possible,  in  which  to  grow  potatoes.  The  plot  for  this  project 
should  contain  at  least  one-tenth  acre.  Almost  any  soil,  how- 


HOME  PROJECTS  351 

ever,  that  is  warm,  mellow,  and  contains  the  requisite  plant 
food  will  produce  good  crops.  It  would  be  well  to  enrich  the 
soil  with  well-rotted  manure  the  fall  previous  to  planting. 

Preparing  the  seted-bed.  All  potato  soils  should  be  made 
mellow  to  a  good  depth.  It  is  best  to  plow  up  the  ground 
in  the  fall  before  the  winter  rains  and  snows  begin.  Fre- 
quent harrowings  in  the  spring  up  to  planting  time  will  con- 
serve moisture,  produce  good  tilth,  and  keep  down  the  weeds. 

Sow  bone-meal  fertilizer  broadcast  over  your  potato  plot 
at  the  rate  of  300  pounds  per  acre,  and  harrow  it  into  the 
soil  before  planting. 

Seed  potatoes.  Such  varieties  as  Early  Rose,  Early  Ohio, 
Carmen  No.  3,  The  Burbank,  etc.,  are  standard  varieties  to 
plant. 

Seed  potatoes  should  not  be  smaller  than  a  hen's  egg,  and 
from  that  up  to  six  ounces  in  weight.  When  potatoes  are 
cheap  it  will  pay  to  plant  medium-sized,  whole  tubers.  Seed 
potatoes  should  be  smooth  and  free  from  scab  and  warty 
spots. 

Treatment  for  scab  may  be  necessary  to  insure  a  good  crop. 
This  disease  causes  rough,  warty  spots  on  the  tubers.  Tubers 
should  be  treated  in  the  following  way  before  planting:  Add 
one  ounce  of  formalin,  which  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug 
store,  to  each  two  gallons  of  water  used.  Place  unout  seed 
potatoes  in  a  bucket  or  tub  and  cover  them  with  the  diluted 
formalin  solution.  Allow  the  tubers  to  soak  for  two  hours, 
then  spread  out  to  dry  until  planting  time. 

Cutting  the  tubers.  If  only  small-sized  tubers  are  used  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  cut  them.  When  large  tubers  are 


352  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

used  they  should  be  cut  into  halves  or  quarters  longitudinally. 
Cut  from  the  eye-end  toward  the  stem-end,  leaving  at  least 
one  of  the  "seed  end"  buds  on  each  piece.  Do  not  cut  the 
tubers  until  ready  to  plant. 

Planting1  the  tubers.  Potatoes  may  be  planted  in  April  or 
May,  without  reference  to  the  moon  or  Good  Friday.  Early 
potatoes  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked  and  the  danger  of  freezing  is  past. 

Depth  and  distance  apart.  Depth  and  distance  between 
potatoes  in  planting  depend  upon  soil  conditions  and  variety. 
In  general  potatoes  should  not  be  planted  less  than  three 
inches  nor  more  than  eight  inches  deep.  In  good  soil  potatoes 
may  be  drilled  one  foot  apart,  one  piece  to  a  place  in  the 
row,  or,  planted  in  hills,  two  pieces  to  a  place  about  fifteen 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  (Use  both  methods.)  The  rows 
should  be  two  or  three  feet  apart,  depending  upon  the  method 
of  cultivation  used.  A  peck  of  seed  to  a  100-foot  row  is  the 
amount  usually  required.  Plant  in  straight  rows  and  cover 
with  moist  earth  as  soon  as  planted. 

As  an  experiment,  plant  one  row  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  cover  the  potatoes  and  the  ground  for  two  feet 
on  each  side  of  the  row  with  old  straw.  Give  no  further 
cultivation  to  this  row. 

Cultivation.  If  the  seed-bed  has  been  well  prepared,  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  stir  the  ground  until  the  plants 
appear.  If  a  crust  forms*  after  planting,  it  should  be  broken 
with  a  harrow  or  a  rake.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up  so 
that  the  rows  can  be  seen,  give  them  a  good  cultivation  with 
a  garden  wheel  hoe  or  cultivator.  The  first  cultivation  may 


HOME  PROJECTS  353 

break  up  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  four  to  six  inches,  but  all 
later  cultivation  should  not  penetrate  the  ground  more  than 
three  inches.  Flat  cultivation  providing  a  shallow  surface 
mulch  constantly  is  the  general  practice.  Good  cultivation 
will  maintain  a  soil  mulch  throughout  the  season,  thus  pre- 
serving the  moisture  and  preventing  the  growth  of  weeds. 

As  an  experiment  and  for  contrast,  cultivate  one  row  by 
ridging  up  the  soil  about  the  potato  plants  as  they  grow. 

Combating  insects  and  diseases.  The  Color-ado  potato 
beetle  is  pretty  sure  to  find  your  potato  plot  and  to  begin  his 
destructive  work  of  defoliating  the  vines.  Prepare  a  solu- 
tion of  lead  arsenate,  about  one  teaspoonful  to  a  gallon  of 
water,  or  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water, 
and  spray  over  the  potato  plants  as  soon  as  the  beetles  ap- 
pear. For  a  small  area  an  atomizer  or  a  sprinkling  can 
may  be  used. 

For  the  potato-leaf  blight,  spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Formula:    1  pound  copper  sulphate,  1  pound  caustic  lime. 

Dissolve  copper  sulphate  in  hot  water.  SlaoK  lime  iri  sepa- 
rate vessel.  Wheii  both  are  cool,  mix  and  add  water  to  make 
nine  gallons'  of  mixture.  Add  one-half  ounce  Paris  green  or 
one-half  pound  lead  arsenate,  and  both  bugs  and  blight  are 
successfully  combated. 

Harvesting.  Students  will  find  it  most  practical  to  "  lift ' ' 
their  crop  by  hand  with  a  potato  hook  or  fork.  Dig  each 
hill  carefully,  and  keep  the  tubers  in  the  experimental  rows 
separate  from  those  in  the  other  rows  so  that  comparisons 
may  be  made.  Note  the  hills  giving  the  highest  yields,  and 
save  these  for  exhibition  or  for  seed.  Sack  up  the  potatoes 


354  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

in  the  usual  way,  weigh  or  measure  the  entire  output,  and 
store  in  a  suitable  place  until  they  are  sold  or  used. 

Notebook  record.  The  student 's  notebook  should  give  full 
information  concerning  each  of  the  following  points: 

1.  Name  and  address  of. student. 

2.  Area  of  plot  in  square  rods,  number  of  rows,  and  num- 
ber of  hills  planted. 

3.  Kind  of  soil ;  sand,  clay,  loam,,  etc. 

4.  Kind  of  crop  grown  on  plot  year  before. 

5.  Kind,  amount,  and  value  of  fertilizer  used. 

6.  Preparation  of  soil.    Date  and  depth  of  plowing. 

7.  Variety  planted.    "Where  seed  was  obtained. 

8.  Amount  of  seed  used. 

9.  Describe  treatment  of  tubers  for  scab. 

10.  Method  of  cutting  seed. 

11.  Date  and  method  of  planting. 

12.  Date  when  vines  came  up  and  when  in  full  bloom. 

13.  Dates  and  methods  of  cultivation. 

14.  Methods  and  success  of  combating  insects  and  disease. 

15.  Date  of  harvesting. 

16.  Yield  in  pounds  or  bushels. 

HOME  PROJECT  11 

ONION  GROWING 

Plans.  For  this  project  the  student  may  grow  ripe  onions 
by  the  two  different  methods:  (1)  by  sowing  the  seed  in  the 
open  field;  (2)  by  planting  sets.  A  plot  of  at  least  four 
square  rods  should  be  used  for  this  project,  and,  of  course. 


HOME  PROJECTS  355 

the  larger  the  plot  grown  the  greater  the  possible  profit. 

Soil  requirements.  Select  land  that  is  exceedingly  rich 
for  the  production  of  onions.  Land  that  has  been  well 
manured  and  cultivated  in  some  crop  for  several  preceding 
seasons  is  best.  In  the  fall  heavy  applications  of  manure 
should  be  made  to  the  land  and  plowed  under.  Three  require- 
ments of  the  soil  essential  to  profitable  onion  culture  are: 
(1)  richness  in  available  plant-food;  (2)  good  tilth  due  to 
the  presence  of  large  quantities  of  humus;  and  (3)  relative 
freedom  from  weed  seeds. 

Time  of  planting.  A  portion  of  the  plot  should  be  planted 
with  onion  seed.  The  seed  should  be  planted  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  An  exceedingly  fine 
seed-bed  should  be  prepared. 

The  seed  is  drilled  in  rows,  twelve  inches  apart,  at  the  rate 
of  four  or  five  pounds  per  acre. 

A  second  portion  of  the  plot  should  be  planted  to  onion 
sets,  which  should  also  be  put  in  as  early  as  possible.  Use 
good-sized  sets.  The  rows  should  be  twelve  inches  apart,  and 
the  sets  about  three  inches  in  the  row.  Plant  the  sets  by 
hand,  pushing  them  well  into  the  soil,  and  be  careful  to  get 
the  right  end  up.  After  the  sets  are  in,  draw  the  soil  lightly 
over  them  with  a  rake. 

Cultivation.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up,  weeding  and 
tillage  should  begin.  Cultivate  often;  it  is  especially  impor- 
tant that  the  ground  should  be  stirred  as  soon  as  possible 
after  each  rain.  The  onions  should  be  cultivated  at  least 
once  each  week  or  ten  days  for  a  period  of  three  months.  A 
wheel  hoe  is  the  best  implement  to  use.  Hand  weeding  is 


356  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

nearly  always  necessary  in  onion  culture.  If  the  onions  are 
to  be  thinned,  this  should  be  done  before  they  get  too  large. 

Marketing1.  If  it  is  desired  to  market  some  of  the  onions 
as  "green  bunch  onions, "  in  about  six  weeks  from  planting 
the  sets  will  have  grown  to  the  desired  size,  and  the  plants 
may  be  pulled  and  bunched  for  the  market. 

For  this  project  it  is  probably  better  to  allow  the  onions 
to  ripen  in  the  ground  and  market  them  as  ripe  onions, 

When  onions  ripen  properly,  the  necks  shrivel  first  and 
the  tops  fall  over  while  they  are  yet  green.  It  is  best  to  begin 
harvesting  when  the  tops  have  fallen  over  and  turned  yellow. 
As  the  onions  are  pulled,  the  tops  are  twisted  off  and  the 
onion  bulb  dropped  into  a  basket.  In  commercial  onion  cul- 
ture these  onions  are  placed  in  crates  and  exposed  to  the  sun 
for  a  few  days,  or  stored  in  open  sheds  where  they  cure  until 
sold  on  the  market  or  placed  in  winter  storage.  The  onions 
may  cure  well  by  being  spread  over  the  floor  of  a  corn  crib 
where  crates  and  sheds  are  not  provided. 

Varieties.  For  this  project,  the  Prize  Taker,  the  Gigantic 
Gibraltar,  and  the  red  and  white  American  types  are  good 
varieties  to  use. 

Notebook  record.  The1  notebook  record  should  be  a  de- 
scription of  how  the  onions  were  grown,  with  an  accurate 
account  of  all  expenditures  and  receipts. 

HOME  PROJECT  12 

CUCUMBER  GROWING 

Varieties.  In  selecting  the  varieties  of  cucumbers  for  this 
project,  use  the  small  sizes  for"  pickling  and  the  larger 


HOME  PROJECTS  357 

varieties  for  slicing.  For  the  student's  home  project,  White 
Spine  or  Henderson's  Perfected  should  be  chosen. 

Soil.  Cucumbers  should  have  a  warm,  moist,  rich,  loamy 
soil.  Sod  that  has  been  turned  over  in  the  fall  is  excellent. 
A  shovelful  of  well-rotted  manure,  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
soil  at  the  bottom  of  each  hill  of  cucumbers,  should  be  applied. 
A  handful  of  commercial  fertilizer  may  also  be  added.  Make 
the  hill  at  least  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  spade  the  soil  up 
to  a  depth  of  seven  or  eight  inches.  If  the  soil  is  heavy,  add 
a  shovelful  or  two  of  fibrous  loam.  The  student  should  grow 
at  least  twenty-five  hills  for  this  project. 

Planting.  Plant  the  seeds  out-of-doors  after  all  danger 
of  frost  is  over;  usually  the  first  or  second  week  of  May  is 
a  safe  time.  Plant  about  eight  or  ten  seeds  scattered  about 
in  the  hill.  The  hills  should  be  from  four  to  six  feet  apart 
each  way.  When  the  vines  begin  to  run,  they  should  be 
thinned  from  four  to  five  plants,  leaving  the  strongest  vines 
spaced  wide  in  the  hill. 

Indoor  planting.  For  an  early  start  it  would  be  a  good 
experiment  in  this  project  for  the  student  to  grow  a  few  hills 
indoors.  Take  sod  from  a  very  rich  soil  as  soon  as  the  frost 
is  out  of  the  ground.  The  pieces  of  sod  should  be  from  four 
to  six  inches  square.  Turn  them  upside  down,  and  place  six 
or  eight  seeds  in  each  piece  of  sod,  about  half  an  inch  deep. 
Keep  these  plants  in  a  warm  place  and  moisten  regularly. 
As  soon  as  they  make  a  good  start,  transfer  the  sod  with  the 
young  plants  to  the  hills  in  the  garden.  Cucumber  plants 
may  also  be  started  in  berry  boxes  or  flower  pots. 

Cultivation.     Keep  the  surface  mulched  until  the  vines 


358  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

cover  the  ground.  Break  the  surface  after  each  rain  and  keep 
out  all  weeds  and  grass.  As  soon  as  the  vines  begin  to  cover 
the  ground,  cultivation  is  no  longer  possible,  but  the  weeds 
may  be  pulled  out  by  hand. 

Harvesting.  The  vines  must  be  kept  in  good  bearing  con- 
dition by  picking  the  cucumbers  regularly.  If  they  are  left 
to  ripen,  the  productiveness  of  the  vine  is  weakened.  As  an 
experimental  feature  of  the  project,  a  few  of  the  tips  of  the 
growing  vines  may  be  kept  pinched  off  after  the  vine  has 
reached  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet.  In  this  way  more  blos- 
soms and  fruit  may  be  forced  along  the  vine. 

Diseases  and  pests.  Downy  mildew  and  wilt  are  diseases 
that  sometimes  attack  the  cucumber.  Spraying  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  is  effective  for  these  diseases.  All  vines  dis- 
eased beyond  control  should  be  destroyed  as  far  as  possible. 
Arsenate,  of  lead  should  be  sprayed  on  the  vines  for  the 
cucumber  worm,  and  this  is  also  effective  against  the  striped 
beetle.  The  striped  beetle  is  the  most  serious  pest  of  the 
cucumber.  Air-slaked  lime  or  tobacco  dust  scattered  about 
the  vines  often  acts  as  a  successful  repellent  against  these 
pests.  For  melon  lice,  which  are  often  serious  pests  of  the 
cucumber,  spray  with  the  tobacco  water  or  whale-oil  soap. 
The  under  sides  of  the  leaves  must  be  reached. 

Records.  The  student  carrying  on  this  project  should 
keep  a  notebook  record  of  every  operation  in  the  growing  of 
this  crop.  This  should  include  the  date  of  the  preparation 
o£  the  ground,  the  planting  of  the  seed,  cultivation  of  the 
ground,  the  amount  of  cucumbers  harvested,  the  control  of 
the  pests,  and  the  cost  and  receipts  for  the  whole  project. 


HOME  PROJECTS  359 

HOME  PROJECT  13 

SWEET  CORN  CULTURE 

Varieties.  The  student  who  takes  this  project  should  se- 
lect seed  from  the  white  variety — Early  Crosby,  White  Cob 
Cory,  White  Evergreen,  Country  Gentleman — and  the  yellow 
variety,  Golden  Bantam.  Only  good  seed  from  last  year's 
crop  should  be  planted. 

Preparation  of  plot.  For  this  project  the  student  should 
have  at  least  one-tenth  acre.  Sweet  corn  will  grow  on  any 
good,  rich,  well-drained  soil,  but  does  best  in  deep,  rich, 
sandy  loam  well-fertilized  with  barnyard  manure.  The  ma- 
nure may  be  put  on  either  in  the  fall  or  spring;  it  must  be 
well  scattered  and  spaded  or  plowed  under.  -A  handful  of 
wood  ashes  in  each  hill  is  a  good  fertilizer  to  apply.  If 
sweet  corn,  is  planted  in  the  home  garden,  the  rows  should 
be  on  the  north  side  where  the  corn  will  not  shade  the  vege- 
tables. It  is  unwise  to  plant  two  types  of  corn,  as  sweet  and 
field,  or  sweet  and  pop  corn,  in  the  same  garden,  as  they  will 
become  crossed  by  the  wind  and  insects  carrying  the  pollen. 
The  ground  for  this  crop  should  be  plowed  early  and  deep, 
and  the  soil  thoroughly  packed  and  mulched  before  planting. 

Planting".  Sweet  corn  should  not  be  planted  until  the  soil 
is  dry  and  warm.  A  general  rule  is  to  plant  when  the  apple 
trees  are  in  bloom.  If  planted  in  hills,  the  rows  should  be 
thirty  inches  apart,  and  the  hills  two  feet  apart.  Drop  five 
or  six  grains  in  a  hill  and  cover  them  two  inches  deep.  If 
planting  in  drills,  drop  two  or  three  grains  every  six  inches 
in  the  drill.  As  soon  as  the  corn  is  well  up  it  should  be  thinned 


360  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

to  one  in  a  place  in  the  drilled  row,  and  to  four  plants  in  the 
hills.  Suckers  appearing  around  the  roots  of  sweet  corn 
should  be  promptly  removed. 

Cultivation.  Make  the  soil  loose  and  fine  after  each  rain ; 
a  mulch  of  about  two  inches  deep  is  best.  The  roots  of  corn 
are  near  the  surface,  and  one  should  not  hoe  too  deep  around 
the  hill.  Liquid  manure  or  a  dressing  of  soda  nitrate  will 
cause  a  strong  growth  of  the  corn  plants. 

Marketing1.  As  soon  as  the  sweet  corn  is  in  the  "roasting 
ear"  stage,  the  student  may  begin  to  market  his  crop.  Study 
the  demands  of  the  market  and  put  up  attractive  packages 
to  sell.  Keep  record  of  all  sales. 

Selecting  seed.  As  soon  as  the  corn  begins  to  show  silks, 
select  about  twenty  stalks  that  showed  silks  first,  and  tie 
strings  or  tags  to  them  above  where  the  ear  is  forming.  Keep 
all  suckers  off  these  stalks.  Let  the  ears  on  these  stalks  go 
until  they  ripen.  These  ears  will  furnish  seed  for  another 
year. 

Notebook  records.  The  student's  notebook  record  of  this 
project  should  be  an  account  of  how  he  grew  his  corn,  a  state- 
ment of  all  expenses,  and  the  total  receipts  from  the  sale  of 
corn,  or  an  estimated  value  of  the  product  if  it  was  used  at 
home  instead  of  being  sold. 

HOME  PROJECT  14 
GROWING  STRAWBERRIES 

Two  season  project.  The  student  who  chooses  this  project, 
should  be  so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  carry  it  on  for  two 


HOME  PROJECTS  361 

seasons,  because  one  season  is  insufficient  to  show  results.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  projects  for  a  young  person  to  undertake. 
The  strawberry  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  small 
fruits. 

Soil  requirements.  Strawberries  may  be  grown  with  a 
fair  degree  of  success  in  almost  'any  soil,  but  moist,  dark, 
sandy  loam  is  the  best.  The  land  for  this  crop  should  be  well- 
drained.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  prepared,  plowed  or 
spaded  deep,  heavily  manured,  and  thoroughly  harrowed 
until  the  surface  is  fine  and  mellow  before  the  plants  are  set. 

The  plants.  For  this  project  the  student  should  have  at 
least  one  hundred  plants  to  grow.  Senator  Dunlap,  Gandy, 
and  Aroma  are  some  standard  varieties  to  plant. 

Setting  the  plants.  The  project  should  be  begun  early  in 
the  spring.  After  the  ground  is  prepared  as  indicated  above, 
lay  off  the  land  both  ways  in  rows  two  feet  apart.  The 
strawberry  plants  should  then  be  set  at  the  junction  of  these 
rows.  The  roots  of  the  plants  should  not  be  exposed  to  the 
sunshine.  They  should  be  set  in  the  hole  prepared  for  them, 
with  the  roots  well  spread  out.  Press  the  soil  firmly  about 
the  roots  with  both  hands,  being  very  careful  not  to  cover  the 
crown.  If  the  ground  is  not  wet,  each  plant  should  receive 
about  one  pint  of  water,  and  loose  mulch  should  be  drawn 
over  the  moistened  earth. 

Cultivation.  The  rows  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from 
weeds  at  all  times.  When  the  runners  begin  to  grow,  they 
should  be  trained  in  circles  about  the  plants,  and  not  allowed 
to  cover  the  space  between  the  rows.  A  fine  soil  mulch  should 
be  maintained  during  the  entire  first  summer,  and  during  the 


362  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

winter  the  ground  and  the  plants  should  be  covered  with 
straw  or  marsh  hay  to  protect  the  plants  from  freezing  and 
thawing.  Keep  the  plants  covered  until  all  freezing  nights 
are  over.  In  the  spring  an  application  of  wood-ashes,  if  avail- 
able, and  nitrate  of  soda  will  be  very  helpful  as  a  fertilizer. 

The  barrel  method.  As  an  additional  feature  of  this 
project,  the  student  may  try-  the  barrel  method  of  growing 
the  strawberries. 

Take  any  strong  barrel,  nail  on  the  hoops,  and  clinch  the 
nails  inside.  Bore  two  or  three  holes  in  the  bottom  for  drain- 
age. Begin  about  eight  inches  from  the  bottom  and  bore  two- 
inch  holes,  ten  inches  apart,  around  the  barrel.  Make  a  simi- 
lar row  of  holes  six  or  eight  inches  from  the  top,  and  a  row 
of  holes  between  the  two  rows  just  mentioned.  Take  land 
tile  or  a  hollow  wooden  tile  into  which  holes  have  been  bored, 
through  which  the  plants  may  be  watered,  and  place  this  in 
the  center  of  the  barrel.  Use  half  soil  and  half  well-rotted 
manure ;  fill  up  to  the  first  row  of  holes.  Set  the  plants  inside 
and  pull  the  leaves  out  through  the  holes  in  the  first  row. 
Fill  the  barrel  to  the  second  row  and  set  the  plants  in  the 
same  way;  and  so  on  with  the  third  row.  Always  press  the 
soil  firmly  before  setting  the  plants.  Fill  the  barrel  full  and 
set  one-half  dozen  plants  in  the  top.  A  single  barrel  pre- 
pared in  this  way  and  well  cared  for  will  yield  an  abundant 
supply  of  strawberries. 

Notebook  records.  The  student  carrying  out  this  project 
should  record  each  operation,  setting  down  the  work  and  the 
performance.  A  record  should  be  kept  of  the  expense  and 
the  final  harvest  in  connection  with  the  strawberry  crop.  . 


HOME  PROJECTS  363 

HOME  PROJECT  15 

GROWING  SWEET  PEAS 

Preparing  soil  and  planting  seed.  For  this  project  the 
student  should  plan  to  grow  at  least  one  hundred  feet  of 
sweet  peas.  These  may  be  planted  in  one  single  row  or  sev- 
eral rows,  three  and  one-half  feet  apart.  Such  varieties  as 
Grandiflora  and  Spencer  sweet  peas  may  be  secured  for  seed. 
The  seeds  after  being  soaked  for  twenty-four  hours  should  be 
planted  in  a  double  row,  about  six  inches  apart  and  two 
inches  deep.  The  furrow  in  which  the  double  row  is  to  be 
planted  should  be  spaded  up  at  least  one  foot  deep.  Finely 
ground  street  sweepings  or  well-rotted  manure  should  be 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  slightly  covered  with 
rich  garden  loam.  Then  with  the  handle  of  the  rake,  which 
should  be  used  to  widen  the  furrows,  two  rows  should  be 
drilled  six  inches  apart  in  the  furrow.  In  these  rows  the 
seeds  are  sown,  one,  two,  or  three  inches  deep.  They  should 
be  covered  with  a  hoe,  care  being  taken  to  remove  all  stones 
and  hard  earth  from  the  surface.  Firmly  imbed  the  seeds  in 
the  soil  by  walking  on  the  drills. 

Early  care.  Sweet  pea  seeds  may  not  appear  to  grow  as 
soon  as  one  would  expect,  but  if  the  seed  is  good  and  the  soil 
preparation  and  moisture  right,  they  should  sprout  within  the 
week.  If  the  cutworms  appear,  mix  about  three  tablespoonfuls 
of  Paris  green  with  a  peck  of  bran,  adding  a  little  water  to 
make  a  mash.  Scatter  this  around  the  young  plants.  It 
quickly  destroys  the  worms.  The  chickens  must  be  shut  up, 
of  course,  and  not  allowed  to  eat  this  poison  or  scratch  out 
the  young  plants. 


364  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Cultivation.  With  the  first  appearance  of  weeds  the 
hand  hoe  or  the  wheel  hoe  cultivator  should  be  used  between 
the  rows.  With  each  hoeing  or  cultivation  the  soil  should  be 
drawn  up  around  the  growing  plants. 

Vine  support.  If  the  student  does  not  wish  to  go  to  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  stretching  wire  for  the  vines,  bushy 
branches  three  or  four  feet  long  thrust  firmly  into  holes  will 
afford  a  support  to  the  growing  vines.  The  spring  rains  will 
cause  the  vines  to  grow  very  rapidly,  and  the  peas  must  be 
hoed  at  frequent  intervals  and  the  soil  kept  carefully  rounded 
up  about  the  plants. 

Keep  blooming.  If  the  sweet  peas  are  planted  as  early 
as  the  ground  and  weather  conditions  permit,  the  first  blos- 
soms may  be  picked  by  the  4th  of  July,  about  three  months 
after  the  planting.  In  order  to  have  the  best  results  with 
sweet  peas  they  must  be  kept  growing  constantly  and  the 
blossoms  must  be  picked  regularly  to  produce  long-stemmed 
flowers  on  the  new  growth.  If  the  stems  begin  to  shorten, 
bone-meal  fertilizer  may  be  hoed  in  around  the  roots  with 
good  results.  A  constant  supply  of  beautiful  blossoms  with 
long  stems  should  be  produced  from  the  beginning  of  the 
blossoming  season  until  the  frost. 

During  August  plant  lice  and  mildew  may  appear.  These 
are  combated  successfully  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  nico- 
tine and  kerosene  solution. 

Marketing  flowers.  If  the  student  wishes  to  sell  his  sweet 
peas,  the  flowers  should  be 'tied  in  bunches  of  twenty-five 
stems  each  and  placed  in  a  cellar  or  other  cool  place.  Early 
the  following  mo-rning  the  bunches  should  be  sold  on  the 


HOME  PROJECTS  365 

market.  Florists,  hotels,  restaurants,  tea-rooms,  and  private 
homes  are  often  anxious  for  these  sweet  pea  bunches.  All 
the  vines  should  be  picked  clean  at  least  once  every  two 
daj^s. 

Notebook  records.  The  record  of  this  project  should  con- 
sist in  keeping  daily  account  of  the'date  and  receipts  in  one 
column,  and  the  actual  and  estimated  cost  in  another  col- 
umn. 

Write  a  few  paragraphs  telling  how  you  grew  your  sweet 
peas. 

HOME  PROJECT  16 

BEAUTIFYING  HOME  GROUNDS 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  preparation  for  this  project  is  to 
measure  the  home  grounds  and  draw  a  map  to  a  scale  in  the 
agricultural  notebook.  A  good  scale  would  be  one-sixteenth 
of  an  inch  to  the  foot. 

Locate  accurately  on  the  map  the  lawn,  houses,  trees,  shrubs, 
and  other  objects  as  they  are  at  the  beginning  of  the  project. 
Indicate  houses  by  squares;  lawns,  by  words  neatly  printed; 
trees,  by  circles ;  shrubs,  by  stars ;  and  other  important  objects 
by  figures  explained  in  a  key  on  another  page.  Eefer  also 
to  each  tree  and  group  of  shrubs  or  flowers  by  number 
explained  in  a  key.  For  example,  the  figure  (1)  by  a  circle 
on  the  map  may  indicate  maple  tree,  and  should  be  so  ex- 
plained in  the  key. 

Later,  as  the  work  of  the  season  proceeds,  mark  on  the 
map  the  plantings  and  changes  you  make. 

Principles  to  observe  in  beautifying  the  home  grounds, 


366  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  A,  B,  C's  of  landscape  gardening.  Copy  the  follov/ing 
principles  into  your  notebook  and  learn  them  well: 

1.  An  open  lawn  of  greensward  should  be  the  main  fea- 
ture of  the  home  grounds.     An  especially  beautiful  tree  or 
clump  of  plants  on  the  open  lawn  is  permissible. 

2.  Borders  of  shrubs  in  masses,  and  a  backgroun    of  trees 
and  shrubs  in  clumps  and  groups,  should  furnish  the  frame 
for  the  picture  of  the  home  grounds. 

3.  Where  the  place  is  large  enough,  walks  should  curve, 
and  at  the  corners  and  ground  line  of  the  house  curves  may 
be  made  by  plantings  of  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants. 

•  Beginning  the  work.  Study  the  map  of  your  home 
grounds  as  they  are,  and  determine  whether  it  is  practicable 
or  desirable  to  remove  any  plant  or  object  that  stands  in  vio- 
lation of  the  A,  B,  C  principles  given  above. 

Improving  the  lawn.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  project 
to  suggest  any  elaborate  undertaking  such  as  grading,  drain- 
ing, plowing,  and  remaking  old  lawns;  however,  some  of 
these  things  might  be  done  by  high-school  boys. 

1.  If  the  project  is  begun  in  the  fall,  a  top-dressing  of 
stable  manure  applied  in  early  winter  to  be  removed  in  the 
spring  would  greatly  benefit  the  lawn.     This  plan  might, 
however,  be  objectionable  in  some  cases. 

2.  In  the  spring  the  lawn  will  be  benefited  by  the  appli- 
cation of  about  three  hundred  pounds  of  ground  bone  to  the 
acre.    The  same  amount  of  nitrate  of  soda  will  reinvigorate 
the  grass. 

3.  If  there  are  barren  or  poorly  sodded  spots  on  the  lawn, 
the  ground  may  be  worked  up  and  re-seeded.    Use  a  mixture 


HOME  PROJECTS  367 

of  blue-grass,  red-top,  and  white  clover  seed,  at  the  rate  of 
20  pounds  blue-grass,  20  pounds  red-top,  and  5  pounds  white 
clover  seed  to  the  acre;  or  some  good  lawn  mixture  sold  on 
the  markets  may  be  more  easily  obtained.  Henderson 's  Shady 
Nook  grass  is  excellent  to  grow  under  trees  and  in  shady 
nooks.  The  seed  should  be  sown  when  the  land  is  moist  and 
the  weather  cool. 

Planting  bulbs.  If  the  project  is  begun  in  autumn,  the 
student  should  send  to  some  good  nursery  or  purchase  from 
a  local  house  a  few  such  bulbs  as  hyacinth,  tulip,  daffodils, 
etc.,  to  set  in  the  ground  in  November  for  early  spring  blos- 
soms. Prepare  a  bed  in  which  to  plant  the  bulbs  in  a  rich, 
well  drained  place  along  the  border  of  some  shrubs,  a  fence, 
or  near  the  house.  Place  a  handful  of  gravel  beneath  each 
bulb,  cover  it  with  three  to  four  inches  of  soil,  and  mulch 
the  ground  well  with  strawy  manure.  Remove  the  mulch 
in  the  spring  and  the  bulbs  will  do  the  rest. 

In  early  spring  such  bulbs  as  canna,  calladium,  lily,  gladio- 
lus, and  dahlia  may  be  set  as  described  above.  The  student 
should  get  a  few  bulbs  of  this  kind  to  use  in  the  early  work 
on  the  home  grounds. 

Seeding  for  herbaceous  plants.  The  following  seed  should 
be  obtained  and  planted  as  described  below: 

1.  Castor  beans.  Send  for  a  dozen  or  more  castor  beans. 
Get  the  seeds  as  early  as  possible,  and  plant  them  in  a  box 
or  pot  indoors  in  order  to  have  early  plants  to  transplant  as 
soon  as  the  ground  warms  in  the  spring,  and  the  danger  of 
frost  is  past.  Transplant  the  bean  plants  to  rich  loam  soil 
when  they  have  four  or  six  leaves.  Place  them  in  groups  of 


368  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

three  or  four,  five  or  six  feet  apart,  at  the  corner  of  the  house, 
at  the  back  of  the  lawn,  or  to  screen  objectionable  views. 

2.  Cosmos.    Prepare  a  long  border  bed  against  a  fence, 
or  to  screen  the  garden  or  some  ugly  object  from  view,  and 
sow  the  cosmos  seeds  rather  thickly. 

3.  Nasturtiums.     Sow  early  a  bed  of  nasturtiums  along 
the  ground  line  of  the  house  or  porch,  and  provide  supports 
for  them  to  vine  upon. 

4.  Dwarf  sunflowers.     A  row  of  these  plants  may  be 
grown  about  the  poultry  yards  and  garden,  or  they  may  be 
grown  in  a  mass  to  hide  some  unsightly  object. 

5.  Sweet  peas.     A  border  bed  of  sweet  peas  is  always 
delightful,  either  at  the  house  or  in  front  of  a  taller  mass  of 
shrubs  or  plants. 

6.  Any  other  annual  or  perennial  which  the  student  de- 
sires to  grow  may  be  used  in  the  project. 

Vines.  At  least  one  vine  should  be  planted  at  the  porch 
to  aid  in  the  work  of  beautifying  the  home  grounds.  Get 
one  or  two  moon-vine  plants  and  set  in  rich  ground  at  the 
porch.  The  common  wild  woodbine  is  an  excellent  one  to 
use. 

Shrubs  and  trees.  It  may  not  be  practical  in  many  home 
grounds  for  the  student  to  attempt  any  planting  of  shrubs 
or  trees,  but,  if  at  all  possible,  at  least  one  tree  should  be 
planted  and  a  few  shrubs  set  out  in  this  project. 

Get  from  the  woods  any  common,  native,  small  tree  and 
transplant  to  the  border  of  the  yard.  Observe  carefully  all 
the  rules  of  transplanting.  Dogwood,  redbud,  maple,  ash,  or 


HOME  PROJECTS  369 

even  oak  may  be  successfully  transplanted  and  would  add 
much  to  the  home  grounds. 

Such  wild  shrubs  as  sumac,  elder,  hazel,  and  the  prairie 
rose  are  to  be  commended  for  home  grounds.  The  student 
should  transplant  at  least  one  shrub  in  this  project.  The 
Spirea  Van  Houttei,  the  hydrangeas,  and  the  barberries  are 
popular  ornamental  shrubs. 

Summer  care.  Keep  the  lawn  well  clipped,  and  water  if 
the  weather  be  extremely  dry.  Keep  weeds  out  of  all  flower 
beds  and  the  soil  loosely  mulched.  Keep  the  yard  neat  and 
clean  from  all  trash  and  clutter. 

Notebook  records.  In  addition  to  the  map  of  the  yard 
as  required  at  the  beginning  of  the  project,  the  student  should 
keep  a  diary  record  of  all  operations  on  the  home  ground. 

HOME  PROJECT  17 
CARE  OF  FRUIT  TREES 

Select  at  least  six  fruit  trees  of  bearing  age  to  use  in 
this  project.  Make  the  following  notes  and  records  in  the 
agricultural  notebook: 

1.  Trees'  name,  variety,  age,  location,  trees  near,  general 
condition,  past  record  of  the  trees  as  to  fruitfulness. 

2.  Condition  of  soil,  cultivated  or  in  sod,  clay,  loam  or 
sandy  loam,  drainage,  fertilizers  used  in  past. 

Soil  improvement.  If  water  stands  about  the  trees  at 
any  season  for  any  length  of  time,  drainage  should  be  given. 
(Use  tile  drains.) 


370  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

If  the  soil  is  sour,  limestone  should  be  used.  To  ascertain 
whether  the  soil  is  acid,  take  a  ball  of  moist  soil  from  beneath 
the  trees  and  press  it  about  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper.  If 
after  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  the  paper  turns  red,  it  is  an  indi- 
cation that  lime  is  needed.  Spread  about  two  bushels  of 
slaked  lime  on  the  ground  under  each  tree.  Work  it  into  the 
ground.  This  may  be  done  at  any  time. 

If  the  ground  about  the  trees  has  not  been  cultivated,  good 
results  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  dynamite.  About  one- 
fourth  of  a  stick  placed  about  two  feet  deep  in  the  ground 
on  each  of  the  four  sides  of  the  tree  will  loosen  up  the  ground 
and  revive  the  tree.  The  dynamite  should  be  used  only  by 
an  experienced  man. 

If  practicable,  the  soil  about  the  trees  should  be  spaded 
or  plowed  up  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  About  a 
half  ton  of  stable  manure  should  be  spread  about  under  each 
tree,  when  only  a  few  trees  are  to  be  cared  for.  Providing 
a  mulch  of  strawy  manure  under  each  tree  would  be  the  most 
practical  way  to  treat  the  soil  in  this  project. 

Pruning1.  At  any  time  before  the  buds  open  in  the  spring 
the  fruit  trees  should  be  pruned.  The  older  apple,  pear,  or 
peach  trees  will  probably  need  severe  pruning.  This  will 
consist  mainly  in  lowering  the  crown,  cutting  out  dead  and 
dying  branches,  and  all  limbs  that  run  criss-cross  and  rub 
against  other  branches.  The  following  principles  should  gov- 
ern the  work  of  pruning : 

1.  Be  able  to  give  a  reason  for  every  cut  made. 

2.  Never  leave  stubs — always  prune  immediately  above  a 
living  branch  which  is  to  be  left. 


HOME  PROJECTS  371 

3.  Make  the  cut  smooth  and  close  to  the  branch  or  trunk. 

4.  Paint  over  the  cut  surface  with  white  or  red  lead,  or 
with  creosote  solution. 

Spraying1.  In  this  project  four  sprayings  are  recom- 
mended : 

1.  Spray  the  fruit  trees  before  the  buds  open  in  the  spring 
with  a  concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution,  one  gallon  to  ten 
or  twelve  of  water.     This  spraying  cleans  the  trees  of  scale 
and  of  many  fungous  diseases. 

2.  Spray  again  within  a  week  after  blossoms  have  fal- 
len.   Use  this  time  a  solution  composed  of  one  and  one-fourth 
gallons  lime-sulphur,  two  and  one-half  pounds  lead  arsenate 
in  fifty  gallons  of  water.     This  spraying  controls  the  codling 
moth,  the  leaf-eating  insects,  and  such  diseases  as  the  apple 
scab,  rust,  brown  rots,  etc. 

3.  Spray  the  third  time,  using  the  same  material,  about 
three  weeks  later.    This  spraying  is  effective  against  the  cod- 
ling moths  as  they  are  seeking  the  apple,  other  chewing  in- 
sects, and  the  diseases  mentioned  above. 

4.  The  fourth  spraying  should  be  done  about  the  last  of 
July.     Use  lead  arsenate,  Bordeaux  mixture  (4  pounds  cop- 
per-sulphate, 4  pounds  lime)  with  fifty  gallons  of  water.    This 
spraying  is  to  combat  the  second  brood  of  codling  moth,  leaf- 
eating  insects,  and  plant  diseases,  especially  the  bitter  rot. 

5.  Use  a  good  barrel  spray  pump  and  thoroughly  spray 
each  tree. 

Grafting1.  In  connection  with  this  project  the  student 
should  do  some  top  grafting  on  his  fruit  trees.  This  work 
should  be  done  in  the  spring  before  the  buds  open.  Select  a 


372  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

good,  healthy  branch  from  three-fourths  inch  to  two  inches 
in  diameter  in  the  top  of  the  tree  upon  which  the  graft  is 
to  be  made.  Make  a  smooth,  square  cut  for  a  stock  upon 
which  the  scion  is  to  be  inserted.  Select  two  scions  for  each 
graft.  These  scions  should  be  from  bearing  trees  of  the  vari- 
ety desired  and  from  last  year's  growth.  Cut  each  scion  to 
three  buds.  Make  a  cleft  in  the  stock,  and  insert  the  scion 
according  to  directions  given  in  the  chapter  on  orcharding. 
The  teacher  should  demonstrate  this  work.  Grafting  wax 
should  be  placed  over  all  exposed  cut  surfaces. 

Setting  out  a  young  orchard.  The  student  may  choose 
this  phase  of  the  orchard  project  instead  of  one  of  the 
preceding  if  he  wishes. 

1.  Select  at  least  one  acre,  preferably  on  rolling  land,  to 
use   in  this  project.     The  soil   should  be  fertile  and  well 
drained.    Plow  the  ground  deep  and  prepare  it  for  planting 
in  the  fall.    The  trees  may  be  planted  either  in  October  and 
November  or  in  April. 

2.  Send  to  a  reliable  nursery  for  the  stock.     Use  apple 
trees  in  this  project.     To  plant  the  acre  will  require  about 
thirty-six  trees.     Select  varieties  to  produce  apples  for  sum- 
mer and  winter  use  according  to  the  tastes  of  the  family. 

3.  Lay  out  the  acre  orchard  plot  in  rows  so  that  the  trees 
will  be  either  in  squares  or  in  triangles,  36  feet  apart.     The 
triangular  arrangement  is  preferable,  since  more  trees  may 
be  planted  to  the  acre. 

4.  Prepare  ample  space  in  the  ground  for  the  roots  of  the 
young  trees,  and  firm  the  soil  well  around  the  roots.     Prune 
the  roots  to  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length  before  planting. 


HOME  PROJECTS  373 

Leave  a  loose  soil  mulch  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  about 
the  trees. 

5.  If  the  trees  are  planted  in  the  fall,  some  mechanical 
protection  should  be  made  against  the  rabbits.     A  roll  of 
common  window  screen  about  the  .trunks  affords  good  pro- 
tection.   Wrappings  of  burlap,  cloth,  coarse  paper,  or  other 
substances  will  serve  to  protect  the  young  tree  trunks. 

6.  In  the  spring  before  the  buds  open  the  young  trees 
should  be  pruned.     Leave  the  lowest  branch  from  24  to  30 
inches  from  the  ground ;  cut  back  all  the  branches  to  8  or  10 
buds.    Prevent  forking  branches,  and  leave  a  central  branch 
to  rise  above  the  others. 

7.  During  the  spring  months  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
July  cultivate  the  young  orchard,  keeping  down  all  grass  and 
weeds  and  providing  a  soil  mulch.    After  the  last  cultivation 
sow  the  orchard  to  cow-peas,  soy  beans,  vetch,  or  clover  to 
provide  a  winter  mulch  and  to  enrich  the  orchard  soil. 

Notebook  records.  Keep  a  map  of  the  orchard  showing 
location  and  names  of  varieties  planted.  Keep  a  cost  account 
of  all  expenses  incurred  in  the  project,  including  cost  of 
material  and  labor.  Estimate  the  profit  or  loss.  Keep  a  diary 
of  operations  performed  in  the  orchard  from  the  beginning 
to  the  sowing  of  a  cover  crop  in  July. 

HOME  PROJECT  18 
PLANTING  A  CATALPA  GROVE 

Select  a  plot  of  fertile,  well-drained  ground  from  one-tenth 
to  one  acre  in  size  to  be  used  for  growing  catalpa. 

Preparation  of  ground.     The  little  trees  may  be  planted 


374  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

in  the  fall  or  spring.  In  either  case  plow  the  ground  deep 
and  harrow  it  down  well.  Lay  the  ground  off  in  furrows  six 
feet  apart  each  way  and  set  the  trees  where  the  furrows 
cross. 

Procuring1  the  trees.  Send  to  a  reliable  nursery  for 
catalpa  speciosa.  Insist  on  the  speciosa.  About  1,000  trees 
may  be  planted  on  an  acre.  These  will  cost  about  $5  a 
thousand  for  seedlings.  The  Ohio  Valley  Nursery  Company, 
Lake,  Indiana ;  the  Little  Tree  Farms,  Farmington,  Mass. ; 
Storrs,  Harrison  &  Company,  Painesville,  Ohio,  are  reliable 
dealers  in  catalpa. 

When  the  little  trees  arrive,  plant  them  carefully  on  the 
ground  prepared.  Thrust  the  spade  into  the  ground  at  the 
intersection  of  the  furrows,  pry  the  soil  back,  and  insert  the 
roots  of  the  little  tree  in  place.  Firm  the  earth  well  about 
the  roots. 

Cultivation.  During  the  first  three  or  four  seasons  after 
planting,  the  little  trees  should  be  cultivated  during  May, 
June,  and  part  of  July  to  keep  the  weeds  down  and  to  hasten 
the  growth.  When  the  cultivation  ceases  in  July  it  is  well 
to  sow  a  crop  of  cow-peas  or  soy  beans  among  the  trees  to 
provide  a  winter  mulch  and  a  green  manure  to  be  plowed 
under  in  cultivation  the  next  season. 

During  the  growing  season  all  side  shoots  and  forking 
branches  appearing  on  the  young  trees  should  be  broken  off. 
This  will  hasten  the  growth  of  the  central  stem  and  make 
clean,  straight  boles  in  the  trees. 

Notebook  record.  The  student  should  record  all  opera- 
tions in  his  agricultural  notebook. 


HOME  PROJECTS  375 

•  HOME  PROJECT  19 

GROWING  SUDAN  GRASS 

With  the  growing  popularity  of  this  new  forage  crop,  it 
is  well  for  the  student  to  undertake  as  a  home  project  the 
growth  of  at  least  one-tenth  of  an  acre  of  sudan  grass. 

The  plant.  It  is  a  tall  annual  grass  growing  from  a  height 
of  six  to  eight  feet.  The  stems  are  fine  and  leafy.  They  stool 
out  to  as  many  as  twenty  to  one  hundred  stalks  from  a  single 
root.  The  sudan  grass  lacks  root  stalk,  and  can  never  become 
a  troublesome  weed. 

Seeding.  In  the  spring,  at  about  the  time  the  corn  is 
planted,  the  same  ground  and  the  same  seed-bed  preparation 
required  for  corn  may  be  used  for  the  sudan  grass.  Sudan 
grass  may  be  sown  in  midsummer  after  oats,  wheat,  or  rye. 
Sow  one-half  of  the  area  broadcast,  and  the  other  half  drilled 
in  rows  thirty-six  inches  apart.  It  would  be  well  to  have 
about  one  pound  of  seed  for  this  project.  The  drilled  por- 
tion of  the  plot  should  be  cultivated  to  keep  down  the  weeds 
during  its  early  growth. 

Cutting1.  Sudan  grass  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  may  be  cut, 
under  favorable  climatic  conditions,  twice  during  the  season. 
It  is  best  cut  when  in  full  bloom,  and  early  cutting  is  advis- 
able when  more  cuttings  are  expected.  The  grass  can  be  cut 
with  a  mower  or  a  binder,  and  the  hay  cures  readily  in  bun- 
dles. 

The  second  crop,  if  allowed  to  mature,  may  yield  an  excel- 
lent crop  of  seed,  and,  since  the  price  of  seed  varies  from 
fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  pound,  the  production  of  sudan 


376  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

grass  seed  is  a  profitable  undertaking.  Seed  grown  for  com- 
mercial purposes  should  be  grown  on  land  not  infected  with 
Johnson  grass.  Johnson  grass  is  abundant,  and  grass  seed 
for  sale  should  be  raised  in  cultivated  rows,  taking  care  to 
hoe  out  any  Johnson  grass  that  may  appear. 

Notebook  record.  The  student  who  carries  out  this  project 
should  keep  record  of  the  following  points: 

The  amount  of  land  utilized. 

The  time  and  method  of  preparation  of  seed-bed. 

The  method  and  amount  of  seeding. 

The  favorableness  of  season. 

The  time  from  planting  to  blossoming. 

The  time  of  cutting. 

The  difference  in  growth  observed  between  the  plot  sown 
broadcast  and  the  one  drilled. 

The  success  of  the  second  crop. 

The  amount  of  hay  and  seed  produced. 

The  total  cost  of  the  project,  item  by  item. 

The  total  value  of  the  crop. 

The  profit  or  loss  sustained. 

HOME  PROJECT  20 
MAKING  A  CONCRETE  WALK 

The  project.  For  this  project  the  student  should  con- 
struct, according  to  the  directions  given  below,  a  strip  of 
concrete  walk  either  at  the  school  or  at  home.  The  time  of 
the  year  and  the  type  of  the  soil  will  very  largely  determine 
the  method  of  laying  the  foundation  for  the  walk. 


HOME  PROJECTS  377 

The  foundation.  A  good  foundation  is  an  important  essen- 
tial in  the  construction  of  a  concrete  sidewalk.  As  a  rule 
under  normal  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  the  foundation 
should  be  from  6  inches  to  10  inches  thick.  For  this  project 
plan  to  build  a  walk  consisting  of  a  4-inch  layer  of  concrete 
resting  upon  a  6-inch  foundation,  with  the  surface  of  the 
walk  2  inches  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Excavate  to  a 
depth  of  8  inches.  Fill  in  6  inches  of  cinders,,  gravel,  or 
crushed  rock,  tamping  it  down  thoroughly  as  it  is  being  filled. 
It  would  be  a  good  plan  to  wet  down  the  foundation  as  it 
is  being  tamped.  Allow  for  drainage  by  extending  the  exca- 
vation 2  inches  or  3  inches  on  each  side  of  the  walk.  On  each 
side  on  top  of  the  foundation  place  2x4-inch  straight  string- 
ers, and  drive  stakes  down  outside  of  stringers  to  hold  them 
in  place. 

Making1  the  concrete.  Use  a  mixture  of  1:2:4  and  mix 
with  sufficient  water  to  make  the  concrete  moderately  wet. 
Tamp  the  concrete  until  the  water  appears  on  the  surface. 
Spread  a  finishing,  coat  about  1  inch  thick  made  of  a  mixture 
of  1  :-l.  To  prevent  the  cement  from  chipping  off,  coat  the 
cement  below  the  surface  layer  with  pure  cement  before  apply- 
ing the  finishing  coat.  Level  off  the  finishing  coat,  smooth 
it  with  a  float,  and  groove  with  a  jointer.  Keep  the  walk 
covered  and  wet  for  two  or  three  days  after  being  laid  to 
allow  it  to  dry  uniformly.  Wet  sawdust  or  wet  sand  is  a 
good  covering,  or  strips  of  canvas  held  in  place  by  weights 
may  be  used. 

Notebook  record.  For  the  notebook  record  of  this  project 
draw  a  sketch  of  the  sidewalk,  showing  the  depth,  length, 


378  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

and  various  layers  used.     (Write  a  paragraph  describing  the 
method  used.) 

Itemize  the  total  expenses  of  every  article  used,  and  the 
cost  of  the  labor  employed  at  50  cents  an  hour. 

HOME  PROJECT  21 

MAKING  A  FARM  GATE 
For  this -project  the  following  material  is  necessary: 

6  boards  pine  I"x6"xl2' 
3  boards  pine  I"x6"x5' 
1  board  pine  I"x6"x9' 
1  pc.  hard  wood  I"x3"x4'  6" 
1  pc.  hickory  I"xl"x3'  3" 
1  Ib.  lOd.  nails. 

1  pair  hinges 

2  doz.  screws  2",  No.  10,  F.  H.  B. 

TOOLS 

Steel  square  Hammer 

Saw  Screwdriver 

Sawing-  boards  to  length.  The  gate  is  to  be  12  feet  long; 
measure  up  and  saw  off  six  boards  of  that  length.  The  three 
uprights  are  to  be  5  feet  long  and  the  brace  is  to  be  9  feet 
long.  The  brace  should  not  be  beveled  until  after  the  gate 
has  been  assembled. 

Nailing-  gute  together.  Lay  five  of  the  12-foot  boards  6 
inches  apart  on  the  floor.  Lay  the  sixth  board  against 
the  edge  of  the  fifth.  Lay  one  upright  across  each 
end,  and  drive  one  nail  through  the  uprights  into  the 
end  of  each  board  properly  spaced,  with  the  end  of  the  boards 
flush  with  the  edge  of  the  upright.  An  easy  and  satisfactory 
method  of  spacing  the  boards  is  to  take  a  block  that  has  been 


HOME  PROJECTS  379 

cut  from  one  of  the  boards  and  place  it  between  the  last 
board  nailed  and  the  next  one  to  be  nailed.  When  you  have 
put  one  nail  in  each  board,  then  square  up  the  gate  with  the 
steel  square  and  fasten  in  place  by  driving  a  second  nail  in 
each  board.  Four  feet  from  one  end,  square  a  line  across  the 
top  and  bottom  board.  This  line  locates  the  third  cross-piece, 
which  should  be  nailed  in  place. 

Cutting  bevel  on  brace.  To  cut  the  bevel  on  the  ends  of 
the  brace,  lay  it  on  the  gate  so  that  the  ends  are  flush  with 
the  top  of  the  upright  at  the  end  and  with  the  bottom  of  the 
next  upright.  Place  the  steel  square  so  that  its  edge  is  flush 
with  the  edge  of  the  upright,  line  across  the  bevel,  and  saw 
along  this  line.  Repeat  at  the  other  end.* 

Notebook  record.  Draw  an  accurate  design  of  the  gate 
constructed.  Give  cost  of  all  material  and  labor  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  gate. 

HOME  PROJECT  22 

THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  OFFICE 

Farming  a  business.  Farming  is  a  real  business,  a  big 
business,  a  difficult  business,  and  a  good  business.  Every  boy 
who  undertakes  a  farm  project  is  making  a  good  start  as  a 
business  man.  He  should  have  an  office  of  his  own.  This 
project  outlines  a  scheme  by  which  an  office  may  be  fitted  out 
for  a  boy,  and  everyone  who  carries  on  a  home  project  should 
have  a  farm  office  of  his  own. 

*Courtesy  of  American  Book  Company,  from  "Farm  Shop  Work," 
by  Brace  and  Mayne. 


380  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

The  office.  Find  some  place  about  your  home  that  you 
can  call  your  office.  It  may  be  in  your  bedroom,  in  some 
small  room,  in  the  corner  of  a  large  one,  in  some  building 
near  the  home,  or  in  a  place  which  you  can  fix  up.  Make 
this  a  place  to  keep  most  of  your  belongings,  and  to  carry  on 
your  business  affairs  even  if  they  are  small.  Call  this  your 
business  office. 

The  equipment.  In  this  office  have  a  desk  with  drawers, 
pigeon-holes,  and  shelves  for  keeping  your  account  books, 
bank  book,  check  book,  pens,  pencils,  ink,  paper,  envelopes, 
bulletins,  clippings,  crop  records,  etc.  If  you  cannot  buy 
a  desk  for  your  office,  make  one.  Instructions  for  making  a 
desk  are  given  further  on.  Have  some  book  shelves,  a  calen- 
dar, and  some  pictures  on  the  walls  of  your  office  to  make 
it  look  business-like  and  attractive. 

Bookkeeping  and  records.  Have  a  good,  permanent,  well- 
bound  account  book  or  ledger  in  which  to  keep  an  account 
of  all  your  business  and  the  agricultural  projects  you  carry  on. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  book  you  should  make  a  list  of  what 
you  own.  This  is  called  an  inventory.  You  might  start  it 
this  way : 

INVENTORY  OF  WHAT  I  OWN. 

Date 1916. 

Article  Value 

1  Knife    $0.35 

2  Books 1.25 

1  Pig    4.75 

1  Office  desk 5.00 

Money   in   bank 7.50 


HOME  PROJECTS  381 

On  separate  pages  keep  accounts  of  things  you  are  doing 
for  a  business.  The  home  project  you  are  carrying  on  in 
connection  with  your  school  agriculture  or  club  work  should 
be  fully  recorded  in  this  book,  in  addition  to  such  reports  as 
are  required  for  the  agriculture  class  or  club. 

BUSINESS  ACCOUNTS 
EXPENSES — CORN  PROJECT 

Rent  of  land $5.00 

Preparation  of  seed-bed 3.60 

Cost  of  seed 25 

Cost  of  fertilizer    1.00 

Cost  of  cultivation 5.50 

Cost  of  harvesting 5.00 


Total    $20.35 

RECEIPTS 

Total  number  bushels $109.37 

Total  value  of  crop 87.50 

Less  expenses   20.35 

Net  profit $67.15 

How  to  make  the  desk.  Probably  you  can  find  enough 
lumber  around  home  to  make  a  desk.  Only  the  ordinary  farm 
tools  are  necessary.  For  about  $1  you  can  get  enough  lum- 
ber at  the  mills.  Have  the  lumber  sawed  to  make  a  desk 
top  36  inches  high,  10  inches  deep,  and  as  wide  as  necessary 
to  fit  properly  your  table  top.  Fasten  together  the  bottom 
and  two  upright  ends,  and  make  them  tight  and  strong  by 
fastening  the  first  cross  piece  to  each  upright  so  that  the  bot- 
tom shelf  will  be  10  inches  high.  It  would  be  best  to  have 


382  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

grooves  for  all  partitions  made  at  the  imll  where  yon  get 
the  lumber,  unless  this  work  can  be  done  at  home  or  in  the 
school.  Slide  in  the  two  bottom  partitions.  Put  in  the  second 
horizontal  piece  five  inches  above  the  first,  and  place  the 
partitions  for  the  pigeon-holes.  Fasten  in  the  top  shelf 
nine  or  ten  inches  above  the  second  shelf.  Go  over  all  the 
joints  and  tighten  them  up.  Use  finishing  nails  and  drive 
them  straight.  Plane  any  joints  that  are  uneven  and  rough. 
Place  the  structure  on  your  table  in  your  room.  Equip 
your  home-made  desk  with  pencils,  pens,  and  such  other  sup- 
plies as  you  need  to  make  your  farm  office  ready  for  use.* 

HOME  PROJECT  23 
FARM  AND  HOME  SURVEY 

The  student  choosing  this  project  should  carefully  copy  this 
outline  in  his  notebook  and  supply  all  required  information  regard- 
ing his  home  and  community. 

Location:      State,  county,  township,  section,  school  district. 

1.  Owner  of  the  farm. 

2.  Number  of  acres  in  farm. 

3.  Operated  by  owners  or  tenant. 

4.  Number  of  years  on  this  farm. 

5.  Number  of  years  in  the  community. 

6.  The  village  center.     Population. 

7.  Names  of  persons  in  the  home.    Birthplace.    Age. 

8.  Hired  help  employed. 

9.  Members  of  family  attending  school.     Kind  of  school.     Are 
the  parents  willing  to  have  their  children  study  agriculture,  domes- 
tic science,  etc.,  in  school? 

10.  Church  affiliations. 

11.  Church  attendance.     Percentage  of  days  for  each  member. 

*Courtesy  of  William  Kendrick,  Morgantown,  W.  Va. 


HOME  PROJECTS  383 

12.  Sunday    school    attendance.     Percentage    of    days    for    each 
member. 

13.  Societies  or  associations  represented. 

14.  Clubs  or  lodges. 

15.  Does  family  make  use  of  a  public  library? 

16.  Are  agricultural  bulletins  read  in  the  home? 

17.  List  of  newspapers  in  the  home. 

18.  List  of  magazines  in  the  home. 

19.  List  of  community  events  attended  or  shared  in. 

20.  Members  of  family  who  are  leaders  or  officers  in  any  rural 
organization  or  institution. 

21.  Natural  resources  of  the  farm. 

Animals:  Number  and  breed  of  horses,  cattle,  swine, 
sheep,  poultry. 

Fruit:     Size,  age,  and  condition  of  the  orchard. 

Size  of  vegetable  garden. 

Farm  crops:  Number  of  acres  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  tim- 
othy, clover.  Yield  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  timothy,  clover. 
Number  of  acres  of  alfalfa;  yield.  Number  of  acres  in  pas- 
ture. Number  of  acres  in  wood  lot;  second  growth  or 
planted. 

22.  Number  of  acres  of  waste  land.     Why  waste? 

23.  Farm    equipment,   buildings,    implements    (sheltered?),   con- 
veyances. 

24.  Modern  conveniences  in  the  farm  home. 

25.  Size    of   yard.      What   measures   for   beautifying   yard    and 
farm? 

26.  Health   conditions:      Deaths   in   the   family;    causes.     What 
diseases  have  been  in  the  home  during  the  past  three  years?    What 
is  done  to  combat  the  house  fly?    What  is  the  source  of  the  water 
supply?     How  is  waste  and  sewage  disposed  of?     Are  the  living 
and  sleeping  rooms  well  ventilated?     Are  there  any  superstitions 
about  health? 

COMMUNITY  CENSUS 
(Answer  as  fully  as  possible.) 

I.    Natural  Resources: 

1.  General  topography  and  elevation. 

2.  Is  there  a  ,soil  survey  of  your  community?     If  so,  what  is 
the  soil  type?    The  limiting  soil  elements? 


384  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

3.  What  mineral  resources  has  the  community? 

4.  What  farm  products  are  sold  out  of  the  community? 

5.  What  farm  products  are  bought  by  the  community? 

6.  What  are  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  community? 

7.  Is  the  community  conserving  its  natural  resources? 

II.  Human  Resources: 

1.  The  general  moral  and  intellectual  tone  of  the  community. 

2.  Are  there  any  vicious  forces  in  the  community? 

3.  Who  are  the  strong  leaders  in  the  community  life? 

4.  Has  the  community  ever  sent  out  any  men  or  women  who 
have  become  famous  in  the  world's  work? 

5.  Has  the  community  any  memories  or  traditions  which  should 
be  respected  by  coming  generations? 

6.  Are  there  any  latent  human   resources  unappreciated   and 
undeveloped? 

III.  Economic  Activities  and  Interests: 

1.  The  leading  industries. 

2.  Means  of  transportation. 

3.  Means  of  communication. 

4.  Condition  of  roads. 

5.  Average  land  values. 

6.  Is  there  any  cooperative  buying  and  selling  in  the  neighbor- 
hood?   Do  you  have  good  markets? 

7.  Is  there  a  drift  from  the  country  to  the  city  in  your  com- 
munity?   If  so,  give  the  reasons  for  moving  from  country  to  city. 

IV.  Community  Health: 

1.  General  standard  of  health  in  the  community. 

2.  Are  the  health  officers  intelligent  and  alert  in  doing  their 
duty? 

3.  Have  there  been  any  serious  epidemics  in  recent  years? 

4.  What  influences  are  at  work  to  improve  health  and  sanitary 
conditions? 

V.  Local  History: 

1.  Was  the  region  occupied  by  Indians  before  the  white  men 
came?    What  Indian  history  is  known? 

2.  Are  there  any  Indian  relics  or  indications  of  former  occu- 
pancy? 


HOME  PROJECTS  385 

3.  Who  was  the  first  white  man  in  the  community?     What  is 
known  of  him? 

4.  What  was  the  first  school'  and  church  in  the  community? 

5.  Are  there  any  pioneers  left  to  tell  the  early  history? 

6.  Has  the  community  ever  suffered  great  disaster? 

7.  Did  war  ever  touch  the  community? 

8.  Have  soldiers  ever  gone  from  the  community  to  war? 

9.  Has  the  community  ever  taken  part  in  any  events  noted  in 
history? 

10.  Are  there  any  great  public  works  near? 

11.  Are  there  any  historic  sites  near? 

12.  What  has  hindered  or  helped  most  in  the  community  devel- 
opment? 

13.  New  England  or  southern  ancestry? 

VI.  Political  Life: 

1.  What  political  parties  in  the  community? 

2.  Which  party  predominates? 

3.  Are  there  many  independent  voters? 

4.  Attitude  of  people  toward  payment  of  taxes?     Do  the  farm- 
ers feel  over-burdened? 

5.  What  are  the  various  tax  rates  for  various  purposes?    State, 
county,  town,  road,  special  road,  school. 

6.  What  is  the  assessed  value  of  the  property  of  the  district? 

7.  Do  the  people  know  how  the  public  money  is  being  used? 

8.  Is  there  any  feeling  of  class  distinction  in  the  community? 

9.  Is  there  a  public  opinion   in   the  community   favoring  the 
enforcement  of  law? 

10.     Is  anything  being  done  for  the  civic  education  of  the  com- 
munity? 

VII.  The   Country  Beautiful: 

1.  What  natural  objects  of  beauty  in  the  community? 

2.  Is  the  community  doing  anything  to  protect  and  preserve 
the  natural  beauty? 

3.  What  influences  and  factors,  if  any,  are  working  to  destroy 
the  natural  beauty? 

4.  What  beautiful  buildings  are  in  the  community? 

5.  Are  the  streets  of  the  town  and  country  beautiful? 

6.  Are  there  any  parks  that  have  been  beautified? 


386  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

7.     What   influences   are   working   to   add   beauty   to   the   com- 
munity? 

VIII.  General  Social  Life: 

1.  What   are   the   objects   that   draw   people   together   in   your 
community? 

2.  Are  there  any   social  gatherings  which   include  the   whole 
community? 

3.  Forms  of  commercialized  social  gatherings. 

4.  Are  there  any  influences  which  interfere  with  the  neighbor- 
liness  of  the  community? 

5.  Special   efforts   made   to   provide   social   life   for  the  young 
people. 

6.  Is  there  any  home  or  community  interest  in  the  proper  asso- 
ciation of  the  young  people  with  each  other,  or  do  the  adults  hold 
aloof  and  let  the  young  folks  go  their  way? 

7.  Is  the  social  life  of  the  community  organized  around  any 
social  center? 

8.  Is  there  a  federation  of  community  organizations? 

IX.  Recreations,  Play,  and  Amusements: 

1.  List  the  recreational  activities  of  your  community.     In-door. 
Out-door. 

2.  What  institutions  are  actively  interested  in  the  recreations 
of  the  people? 

3.  Do  the  homes  provide  adequate  recreation? 

4.  What  organizations  are  making  provisions  for  the   recrea- 
tional activities? 

5.  What  festivals,  pageants,  celebrations,  etc.,  are  held? 

6.  Is  the  play  life  in  the  community  a  constructive  element? 

X.  Religious  Lifer 

1.  Are   the   churches   strengthening   the   religious    life   of   the 
community? 

2.  How  many  churches  and  for  what  population? 

3.  How  long  is  the  average  pastorate?     Does  the  minister  re- 
ceive a  living  salary?    Does  he  live  in  the  community? 

4.  Do  the  ministers  visit  the  homes,  and  are  they  conversant 
with  the  occupations  of  their  members? 

5.  Are  the  churches  strong  in  their  leadership  for  a  progressive 
country  life? 


HOME  PROJECTS  387 

6.  Are    there    any    organizations    for    young    men    and    young 
women  connected  with   the   church?     Give   name  and   number   of 
members  in  each  organization. 

7.  Are  there  meetings,  lectures,  Sunday  schools,  or  chautauquas 
for  general  religious  education? 

XI.    Intellectual  Life: 

1.  Is  there  a  community  interest  rin  maintaining  good  schools? 

2.  What  organizations  in  the  community  outside  of  the  school 
contribute  to  the  intellectual  life? 

3.  Kind  of  grade  school  in  the  community?     One  teacher  or 
consolidated? 

4.  Is  a  high  school  within  reach  of  every  boy  and  girl  when 
he  or  she  is  ready  for  it? 

5.  Is  vocational  work  taught  in  the  schools?     State  what   is 
taught  if  vocational  work  is  offered. 

6.  Is   the   school   attempting  to  reach   out   and   contribute   to 
the  education  of  the  whole  community?    In  what  ways? 


APPENDIX 

AGRICULTURAL  CLUBS  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

With  the  growth  and  development  of  agricultural  departments  in 
our  high  schools,  there  ought  to  be  an  increasing  number  of  boys 
and  girls  who  are  interested  permanently  in  country  life.  In  many 
of  the  high  schools  of  the  state  a  large  percentage  of  the  students  are 
from  the  country.  Many  of  the  country  boys  and  girls,  whether 
studying  agriculture  or  not,  are  proud  to  be  country  born  and  bred, 
and  would  be  glad  to  form  an  organization  having  the  strong  tie  of 
country  life  interests  as  the  fraternal  bond  of  such  a  group. 

These  clubs  may  be  considered  as  having  rather  free  filial  rela- 
tionships with  the  same  organizations  in  the  state  universities.  They 
will  at  any  rate  train  up  good  members  for  the  collegiate  organiza- 
tions, should  the  student  go  to  the  university,  or  prepare  good  lead- 
ers for  such  organizations,  should  the  student  return  to  a  country 
life  vocation.  There  is  a  slight  possibility  that  the  Collegiate  Clubs 
might  be  able  to  send  delegates  to  those  high  schools  wishing  to 
form  such  an  organization. 

The  following  constitution  is  recommended  in  order  to  have  uni- 
formity in  these  clubs: 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS 

OF  THE 

HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  AND  COUNTRY 
LIFE  CLUB 

Article  1.    Name 

Section  1.     The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be 

High-School  Agricultural  and  Country  Life  Club. 


Article  2.    Objects 

Section  1.     The  object  of  this  organization  shall  be:   To  encour- 
age the  study  of  agriculture  and  household  science  in  the  school 

388 


APPENDIX  389 

and  home,  and  to  cultivate  among  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  high 
school  a  love  for  the  open  country,  the  farm  life,  and  the  country 
home. 

Section  2.  To  promote  contests  in  plant  growing,  animal  raising, 
and  the  holding  of  exhibitions  of  farm  products  grown  or  produced 
by  the  members  of  the  club. 

Section  3.  To  train  active  and  efficient  leaders  among  young  men 
and  women  for  rural  life  progress. 

Section  4.  To  furnish  opportunity  through  organization  for  social 
activities,  such  as  literary  programs,  social  gatherings,  out-door 
picnics,  play  festivals,  etc. 

Article  3.    Members 

Section  1.  All  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  high  school  who  are 
sincerely  interested  in  agriculture  and  country  life  are  eligible  for 
active  membership. 

Section  2.  Pupils  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  young 
people  not  in  school  may  be  elected  as  associate  members  with  all 
privileges  of  the  club  except  holding  office  or  voting.  New  members 
are  elected  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  club  at  the  next  meeting  fol- 
lowing the  presentation  of  their  names. 

Article  4.    Officers 

Section  1.  The  officers  of  the  High-School  Agricultural  and  Coun- 
try Life  Club  shall  be  president,  vice-president,  secretary,  treasurer, 
and  program  committeeman. 

Section  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president  to  preside  at  all 
meetings,  preserve  order,  and  demand  obedience  to  all  rules.  His 
emblem  is  a  red  ribbon  worn  on  the  lapel  of  his  coat.  The  vice- 
president  shall  assist  the  president  in  all  his  duties,  and  preside 
in  his  absence.  His  emblem  is  a  blue  ribbon.  The  program  com- 
mitteeman shall  arrange  the  literary  program  for  all  regular  meet- 
ings, calling  to  his  assistance  any  two  members  as  program  com- 
mittee if  he  wishes,  and  shall  submit  the  program  to  the  principal 
of  the  school  for  his  approval.  His  emblem  is  a  green  ribbon.  The 
secretary  shall  keep  the  minutes  of  all  meetings,  receive  fees  and 
dues  of  all  members,  pay  the  same  to  the  treasurer,  take  and  keep 
his  receipts  thereof.  His  emblem  is  a  white  ribbon.  The  treasurer 
shall  take  charge  of  and  keep  all  money  of  the  club,  and  pay  out 
the  same  only  upon  orders  signed  by  the  president  and  secretary. 
His  emblem  is  a  yellow  ribbon. 


390  A  YEAR  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Section  3.  The  officers  shall  be  elected  by  the  club  for  one  year 
at  the  last  regular  meeting  in  May. 

Article  5.    Meetings 

Section  1.  The  Agricultural  and  Country  Life  Club  shall  meet 
every  two  or  four  weeks,  at  the  place  and  time  designated  by  the 
club,  upon  the  approval  of  the  high-school  principal. 

Section  2.  The  order  of  business  at  the  regular  meetings  shall 
be  as  follows: 

1.  Call  to  order  by  President. 

2.  Roll-call. 

3.  Reading  of  minutes. 

4.  Literary   program. 

5.  Reports  of  committees. 

6.  Proposals  for  membership. 

7.  Voting  on  new  members. 

8.  General  business. 

9.  Adjournment. 

Article  6 

Section  1.  The  regular  program  shall  consist  of  music,  recita- 
tions, readings,  essays,  orations,  debates,  and  extemporaneous  talks, 
etc.  The  public  should  be  invited  to  these  meeting. 

Section  2.  The  club  shall  co-operate  with  all  local  and  county 
agricultural  movements,  contests,  etc.,  such  as  corn  growing,  gar- 
den work,  and  household  science  clubs. 

Section  3.  An  annual  exhibit  of  farm  products  is  recommended. 
The  club  should  provide  a  program,  invite  the  patrons  of  the  school, 
and  through  the  principal  make  provisions  for  ribbons  or  prizes  for 
the  best  exhibits. 

Section  4.  The  club  shall  arrange  an  annual  picnic  or  play  festi- 
val some  time  during  the  latter  part  of  the  school  year.  Programs 
of  music,  declamations,  athletic  events,  refreshments,  etc.  shall  be 
provided  by  the  club. 

Article  7 

Section  1.  The  letter  (C)  shall  be  adopted  as  the  badge  and 
emblem  of  the  Agricultural  and  Country  Life  Club,  and  may  be 
worn  by  all  members. 

Section  2.  Any  member  of  the  club  who  shall  have  distinguished 
himself  in  any  one  or  more  agricultural  or  country  life  achieve- 


APPENDIX  391 

ments,  such  as  winning  first  or  second  honors  in  state  or  county 
plant  or  animal  growing  contests;  winning  honors  in  household 
science  contests;  growing  as  much  as  an  acre  of  any  standard  farm 
crop  and  producing  above  the  average  in  yield  for  that  crop  in  the 
state ;  owning  and  caring  for  some  pure-bred  domestic  animal  accord- 
ing to  approved  methods;  any  other  country  life  achievement  show- 
ing superior  ability,  shall,  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  princi- 
pal of  the  school,  have  conferred  upon  him  at  the  agricultural  short 
course  at  the  state  university,  by  the  presidents  of  the  Agricultural 
Club  and  the  Collegiate  Country  Life  Club  of  the  state  the  honorary 
title  of  "Master  Countryman." 


REFERENCES 
TEXT-BOOKS 

Principles  and  Practices  of  Poultry  Culture — Robinson. 

Profitable  Poultry  Keeping — Davis. 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools — Harper. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry — Plumb. 

Field  Crops  Production — Livingston. 

Field  Crops — Wilson  and  Warburton. 

Productive  Orcharding — Sears. 

Productive  Vegetable  Gardening — Lloyd. 

Manual  of  Gardening — Bailey. 

Orchard  and  Garden — Douglas. 

Farm  Crops  and  Soils — Mosier. 

BULLETINS  AND  CIRCULARS 

Feeding  Dairy  Cattle — Circular  152,  111.  Exp.  St. 

Feeding  the  Pig— Circular  133,  111.  Exp.  St. 

Farmers  Bulletin  No.  409,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Corn  Day  Annual — Illinois  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 

Alfalfa— Circular  12,  Illinois  Exp.  St. 

The  Home  Vegetable  Garden — Circular  154,  111.  Exp.  St. 

Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  245,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 

Potato  Primer — Mass.  Agr.  College  Circular. 

Onion  Culture— Cir.  173,  111.  Exp.  St. 

Farm  Craft  Lessons — U.  S.  Boys  Working  Reserve. 


INDEX 


Agronomy,  9. 
Alfalfa,  40, 

Plant  of,  40, 

Values  of,  41. 
Animal  Husbandry,  131. 
Apple,  The,  273. 

Brood  Sow,  Care  of,  190. 
Butter,  166. 

Cheese,  167. 
Chinch  Bug,  80. 
Cholera,  Hog,  191. 
Church,  The  Country,  239. 
Clover,  32, 

Manural  Value  of,  35, 

Red  Clover,  33,  36, 

Rotation  of,  34. 
Codling  Moth,  274. 
Cold  Frames,  306. 
Colorado  Potato  Beetle,  301. 
Corn,  53, 

Importance  of,  54, 

Indian  Corn,  53, 

Insects  Injurious  to,  79, 

Life  Cycle  of,  56, 

Plant  of,  57, 

Products  of,  82,    . 

Rotation  of,  59, 

Testing  seed  of,  66, 

Types  of,  55. 
Country  Life  Clubs,  231, 

Activities  of,  233. 
Country,  Beautifying  the,  309. 
Crops,  List  of  Forage,  49. 
Curculio,  275. 
Cutworms,  302. 

Dairy  Cattle,  159, 
Breeds  of,  161, 
Characteristics  of,  162, 
Differences  in,  168, 
Feeding  and  Care  of,  172, 
Products  of,  165. 


Eggs,  Preserving,  208. 

Farm  Management,  215. 
Fertility,  Soil,  101. 
Forests,  The,  243, 

National  Forests,  245, 

Of  the  United  States,  247. 
Forestry,  Farm,  241. 
Fruit,  Packing  and  Storing,  276, 

Types  of,  272, 

Varieties  of,  261. 
Fruit  Growing  on  The  Farm,  259. 

Garden,  The  Home,  286, 

Pests  of,  299. 
Grafting,  271,  371. 

Hay,  49,  50. 
Hessian  Fly,  18. 
Hogs,  179, 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of, 

193. 

Home  Projects,  315-387. 
Hopkins,  Dr.  Cyril  G.,  32,  103. 
Horse,  The,  133, 

Breeds  and  Types  of,  136, 

Colic  of,  151, 

Draft,  137, 

Farm,  138, 

Feeding  and  Care  of,  145,  150, 

Founder  of,  151, 

Grading  up  of,  141, 

Judging,  143, 

Lameness  of,  152, 

Moon  Blindness  of,  154, 

Ringbone  of,  153, 

Spavin,  153, 

Splints,  152, 

Training  of,  147, 

Work  of,  133. 
Horticulture,  241. 
Hotbed,  The,  295,  306. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Corn,  79. 


393 


394 


INDEX. 


Lice,  79,  301. 

Lime  in  Soils,  101,  113. 

Live-Stock  Farming,  131. 

Maize,  53. 
Marketing,  317, 

Preparing  Products  for,  302. 
Meadows,  49,  51. 
Milk,  165. 

Nitrogen  in  Soils,  120. 
Nut  Crops,  250, 
Varieties  of,  250. 

Oats,  26, 

Rotation  of,  27, 

Smut  of,  28,  30, 

Types  of,  26. 
Orchard,  The,  259, 

Care  of,  265, 

Pests  in,  274, 

Renovation   of   Old    Orchards, 
268, 

Setting  Out,  372, 

Spraying,  270. 
Organizations,  Country  Life,  227, 

Agricultural  Improvement  As- 
sociations, 232, 

American    Society    of   Equity, 
230, 

Boys    and    Girls    Agricultural 
Clubs,  232, 

Farmers'  Institutes,  230, 

Farmers'  Union,  230, 

Grange,  The,  229. 

Pastures,  49,  50. 

Pests  in  the  Orchard,  274. 

Phosphorus  in  Soils,  110. 

Pig  Raising,  173. 

Plants,  How  They  Grow,  10, 

Germination  of,  10. 
Potassium  in  Soils,  112. 
Poultry,  197, 

Diseases  Among,  208, 

House  for,  205, 

Rations  for  Laying  Hens,  203, 

Standard  Breeds  of,  198. 


Records    and    Accounts,    Farm, 

218. 

Roads,  The,  238. 
Root-Louse,  Corn,  79. 

San  Jose  Scale,  275. 
Seed-Bed,  The,  287. 
School,  The  Country,  237. 
Soils,  91, 

Effect  of  Lime  in,  101,  113, 

Fertility  of,  101,  103,  106,  108, 
117, 

Formation  of,  92, 

Nitrogen  in,  120, 

Phosphorus  in,  110, 

Potassium  in,  112. 
Spraying  the  Orchard,  270,  371. 
Striped  Cucumber  Beetle,  300. 
Swine,  179, 

Bacon-type,  183, 

Feed  and  Management  of,  188, 

History  of,  179, 

Importance  of,  179, 

Lard-type,  181, 

Types  and  Breeds  of,  181. 

Tomato  Raising,  347. 
Transpiration  of  Plants,  11. 
Transplanting,  Principles  of,  295. 
Trees,  241, 
In  the  Landscape,  252. 

Vegetable  Gardening,  286, 

Planting  Dates  and  Varieties 
Recommended  for,  292. 

Water-glass,  208. 
Wheat,  13, 

Diseases  of,  18, 

Kernel  of,  23, 

Preparing  the  Soil  for,  15, 

Varieties  of,  13. 
Wood  Lot,  The  Farmer's,  248. 
Worm,  Corn  Ear,  81, 

Green  Cabbage,  299, 

Joint,  20. 

Yellows,  of  Peaches,  275. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


